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Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:27:11Z

Cpatton: /* Possessive inflected forms: */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. ''agamsa'' 'at '''me'''')

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns:
:{|
|Tha||mi||gam||thaigh
|-
|be.pres||1s||at.my||house
|-
|"I am at my house."
|}

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

*NOTE: ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' 'at their' in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant (definition)|consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]]. Instead, it triggers [[eclipsis]].

These same forms are used with the [[Progressive aspect (definition)|progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'' when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:26:31Z

Cpatton: /* Possessive inflected forms: */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. ''agamsa'' 'at '''me'''')

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns:
:{|
|Tha||mi||gam||thaigh
|-
|be.pres||1s||at.my||house
|-
|"I am at my house."
|}

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

*NOTE: ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' 'at their' in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]]. Instead, it triggers [[eclipsis]].

These same forms are used with the [[Progressive aspect (definition)|progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'' when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:25:24Z

Cpatton: /* Possessive inflected forms: */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. ''agamsa'' 'at '''me'''')

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns:
:{|
|Tha||mi||gam||thaigh
|-
|be.pres||1s||at.my||house
|-
|"I am at my house."
|}

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

*NOTE: ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' 'at their' in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]]. Instead, it triggers [[eclipsis]].

These same forms are used with the [[progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:25:02Z

Cpatton: /* Possessive inflected forms: */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. ''agamsa'' 'at '''me'''')

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns:
:{|
|Tha||mi||gam||thaigh
|-
|be.pres||1s||at.my||house
|-
|"I am at my house."
|}

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

*NOTE: ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' 'at their' in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]]. Instead, it triggers [[eclipsis]].

These same forms are used with the [[ProgressiveAspect progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:24:19Z

Cpatton: /* Possessive inflected forms: */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. ''agamsa'' 'at '''me'''')

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns:
:{|
|Tha||mi||gam||thaigh
|-
|be.pres||1s||at.my||house
|-
|"I am at my house."
|}

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

*NOTE: ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' 'at their' in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]]. Instead, it (triggers [[nasalization]])

These same forms are used with the [[ProgressiveAspect progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:21:19Z

Cpatton: /* Emphatic Inflected forms */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. ''agamsa'' 'at '''me'''')

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns: Tha mi gam thaigh 'I am at my house'

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

- ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' "at their" in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]] (triggering [[nasalization]] instead)
- These same forms are used with the [[ProgressiveAspect progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:20:24Z

Cpatton: /* Basic inflected forms */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''aig'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say 'at me', we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. agamsa "at **me**")

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns: Tha mi gam thaigh 'I am at my house'

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

- ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' "at their" in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]] (triggering [[nasalization]] instead)
- These same forms are used with the [[ProgressiveAspect progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:20:00Z

Cpatton: /* Simple forms */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'

definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''at'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say "at me", we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. agamsa "at **me**")

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns: Tha mi gam thaigh 'I am at my house'

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

- ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' "at their" in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]] (triggering [[nasalization]] instead)
- These same forms are used with the [[ProgressiveAspect progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Aig (preposition)

2015-10-22T18:19:50Z

Cpatton: /* Simple forms */

Gaelic [[Preposition (definition)|preposition]], meaning roughly "at" or sometimes "by" or "near". It can also mean "have" when used in combination with the verb [[Bi]] (e.g. tha leabhar agam) and in its inflected form can be used to mark [[Possessive Pronoun (definition) |possessive pronouns]]. It governs the [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case, but typically does not trigger [[lenition]] on the following bare indefinite nouns.

''For other prepositions see [[prepositions]]''

==Form==
===Simple forms===
bare form: ''aig'' 'at a'
definite form: ''aig an'' 'at the'

===Basic inflected forms===
Like most prepositions, ''at'' can be inflected for [[person]], [[number]], and [[gender]]. For example, to say "at me", we use the single word ''agam''.

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agam<TD>againn
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agad<TD>agaibh
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aige<TD rowspan="2">aca
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aice
</TABLE>

===Emphatic Inflected forms===

Special emphatic forms are used if we want to emphasize the pronoun in the inflected preposition. (e.g. agamsa "at **me**")

<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>agamsa<TD>againne
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>agadsa<TD>agaibhse
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD>aigesan<TD rowspan="2">acasan
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>aicese
</TABLE>

===Possessive inflected forms:===

There is a special contracted form of ''aig'' used with possessive pronouns: Tha mi gam thaigh 'I am at my house'

Contracted forms (typically used in speech)
<TABLE columns="4" border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all">
<TR><TH colspan="2"><TH colspan="1">singular<TH colspan="1">plural
<TR><TH colspan="2">1st<TD>'gamL<TD>garN
<TR><TH colspan="2">2nd<TD>'gadL<TD>gurN
<TR><TH rowspan="2">3rd<TH>Masc<TD> gaL<TD rowspan="2">ganN
<TR><TH>Fem<TD>gaH
</TABLE>

- ''gam'' is used instead of ''gan'' "at their" in front of words beginning with the [[labial]] [[consonant consonants]] <f, b, p, m>. Note that orthographically this is the same as gam 'at my', but does not trigger [[lenition]] (triggering [[nasalization]] instead)
- These same forms are used with the [[ProgressiveAspect progressive aspect]] particle ''ag'', when the object is pronominal. See the [[Progressive aspect]] article for more details.

==Special Uses of "aig" ==

===Possessive Pronoun Usage===
an leabhar agam 'my book'

===Possessive Marker===
an leabhar aig Iain "Iain's book''

===Usage to mean 'have'===
tha leabhar agam 'I have a book'

===Modal Usage===
Tha agam ri + vn "I have to ...

===Experiencer Usages===
*Chan eil agam air +N "I dislike N"
*Chan eil fios agam "I don't know"

===Partitive Usage===
(Mark 2004:15)
*an dithis aca 'both of them'
*an dithis agaibh 'both of you'
*an triùir againn "the three of us"

==References==
Mark, Colin (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am Faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge

==Notes==
In this document, as elsewhere, L indicates [[Lenition]] and N indicates [[Nasalization]], (prefixation of an n- before a word beginning with vowels, and a nasalization of the next consonant (not indicated in the orthography) and H indicates [[Antilenition]] (the prefixation of <h> before words beginning with vowels).

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Preposition]]

Abair (irregular verb)

2015-10-22T18:17:47Z

Cpatton: /* Uses */

The irregular verb ''Abair'' means "to say". ''Abair'' is one of 11 [[:Category:Irregular Verb|irregular verbs]] in Gaelic.

==Uses==
A common idiomatic usage: when used by itself, it means something along the line "what a...!" or "Say, look!".

''Abair latha math!''

'What a good day!'

''Abair duine laghach!''

'What a nice man'

''Abair car breagha!''

'What a beautiful car!'

==Summary of forms==

*Independent forms of the verb ''abair'' are used without any particles.
*Dependent forms of the verb ''abair'' are used after ''an'', ''nach'', ''gun'' and other verbal particles.
*Unlike regular verbs, the [[Dependent verb form (definition)|dependent]] past tense particle ''[[Do (tense marker)|do]]'' is never used with ''abair''.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!colspan="3"|context!!independent!!Dependent
|-align=center
!rowspan="6"|basic forms!!rowspan="3"|active!!past
|thuirt (or thubhairt)
|tuirt
|-align=center
!Future
|their
|abair3
|-align=center
!Relative Future
| ---
|their
|-align=center
!rowspan="3"|impersonal1!!past
|thuirteadh
|tuirteadh
|-align=center
!future
|theirear
|abrar3
|-align=center
!relative future
| ---
|theirear
|-align=center
!rowspan="2"|Conditional Mood!!colspan="2"|active
|theireadh2 (theirinn1 in 1st singular)
|colspan="2"|abradh2,3 (abrainn1,3 in 1st sing)
|-align=center
!colspan="2"|impersonal
|theirte
|colspan="2"|abairte
|-align=center
!rowspan="2"|Imperative Mood!!rowspan="2"|2nd person!!singular
|abair1,3||colspan="2" rowspan="8"|---
|-align=center
!plural
|abraibh1,3
|-align=center
!colspan="3"|verbal noun
|ràdh
|}
Notes:
*1 these forms are not used with any subject, they contain the subject in the inflection of the verb ([[Pro-Drop]])
*2 takes tu rather than thu in the 2nd person.
*3 Abair is rarely used to mean "Say" in the imperative and dependent forms in the future and conditional, instead the regular verb ''can'' is more often used.

==Non Conditional Moods (indicative, interrogative, negative)==
===[[Active voice (definition)|Active Voice]]===
====Past tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question!!embedded
|-
! 1
|thuirt mi ||an tuirt mi ||cha tuirt mi||nach tuirt mi||gun tuirt mi
|-
!2
|thuirt thu ||an tuirt thu ||cha tuirt thu||nach tuirt thu||gun tuirt thu
|-
!3 masc
|thuirt e||an tuirt e||cha tuirt e||nach tuirt e||gun tuirt e
|-
!3 fem
|thuirt i||an tuirt i||cha tuirt i||nach tuirt i||gun tuirt i
|-
! 1 pl
|thuirt sinn ||an tuirt sinn ||cha tuirt sinn||nach tuirt sinn||gun tuirt sinn
|-
!2 pl
|thuirt sibh ||an tuirt sibh ||cha tuirt sibh||nach tuirt sibh||gun tuirt sibh
|-
!3 pl
|thuirt iad||an tuirt iad||cha tuirt iad||nach tuirt iad||gun tuirt iad
|}
 

====Present tense====

As is common in Gaelic, there is no present tense form of the verb. When a simple present meaning ("I say something") or a progressive meaning (I am saying something) is intended, the [[Periphrastic (definition)|periphrastic construction]] is used with the present tense of the verb ''bi'' (be), i.e., ''tha'', along with the verbal noun.

:{|
|Tha||mi||ag ||ràdh
|-
|be.pres||1s||prog||say.vn
|-
|I'm saying/I say
|}
 

====Future tense====

The [[Future Tense (definition)|future tense]] in Gaelic is used to express the idea that an event will happen sometime after the speech time. Unlike English, the future tense can also be used with a present tense meaning, to express the idea that an action is [[Habitual Aspect (definition)|habitual]].

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question||Relative Future1
|-
! 1
|their mi ||an abair mi ||chan abair mi||nach abair mi||a their mi
|-
!2
|their thu ||an abair thu ||chan abair thu||nach abair thu||a their thu
|-
!3 masc
|their e||an abair e||chan abair e||nach abair e||a their e
|-
!3 fem
|their i||an abair i||chan abair i||nach abair i ||a their i
|-
! 1 pl
|their sinn ||an abair sinn ||chan abair sinn||nach abair sinn||a their sinn
|-
!2 pl
|their sibh ||an abair sibh ||chan abair sibh||nach abair sibh||a their sibh
|-
!3 pl
|their iad||an abair iad||chan abair iad||nach abair iad||a their iad
|}

Note:
# the relative future is used after certain particles such as ''ma'' or the particle used with questions ''a''.

----

===Impersonal/Passive Voice===

Gaelic verbs don't technically have a [[Passive (definition)|Passive]] verb form. Instead the passive is typically represented through a [[Periphrastic (definition)|periphrastic]] construction using the verbs ''Rach'' or ''Tha'' + the passive marker ''air''. It does, however, have an [[Impersonal (definition)|impersonal]] form. The '''Impersonal''' is used to indicate an indeterminate subject. ''thuirteadh'' can be best translated as "someone said". When used with a pronoun, the pronoun represents the logical object of the verb. So "thuirteadh e" means "Someone said it". This is often translated as "it was said", hence the typical "passive" label.

Since Gaelic doesn't distinguish between subject and object pronouns (unlike it's sibling [[Modern Irish]]), it is very difficult to determine if these pronouns are subjects or objects. We list them here as if they were subjects, with the understanding that the pronouns in the following tables represent the logical objects of the verb (the thing that was said, not the sayer).

====Past tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
!3 masc
|thuirteadh e||an tuirteadh e||cha tuirteadh e||nach tuirteadh e
|-
!3 fem
|thuirteadh i||an tuirteadh i||cha tuirteadh i||nach tuirteadh i
|-
!3 pl
|thuirteadh iad||an tuirteadh iad||cha tuirteadh iad||nach tuirteadh iad
|}
 

====Present tense====

The use of a passive in the present tense is odd, even in English. We leave this blank here.

====Future tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question||Relative Future1
|-
!3 masc
|theirear e||an abrar e||chan abrar e||nach abrar e||a theirear e
|-
!3 fem
|theirear i||an abrar i||chan abrar i||nach abrar i ||a theirear i
|-
!3 pl
|theirear iad||an abrar iad||chan abrar iad||nach abrar iad||a theirear iad
|}
Notes
# the relative future is used after certain particles such as ''a'' the particle used with questions, or ''ma'' "if".
 

==Conditional Mood==
====Active====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
! 1
| theirinn1 ||an abrainn ||chan abrainn||nach abrainn
|-
!2
|theireadh tu2||an abradh tu ||chan abradh tu||nach abradh tu
|-
!3 masc
|theireadh e||an abradh e||chan abradh e||nach abradh e
|-
!3 fem
|theireadh i||an abradh i||chan abradh i||nach abradh i
|-
! 1 pl
|theireadh sinn (theireamaid3)||an abradh sinn (an abramaid3)||chan abradh sinn (chan abramaid3)||nach abradh sinn (nach abramaid3)
|-
!2 pl
|theireadh sibh ||an abradh sibh ||chan abradh sibh||nach abradh sibh
|-
!3 pl
|theireadh iad||an abradh iad||chan abradh iad||nach abradh iad
|}
Notes:
#The 1st person singular form is never used with an overt pronoun, the verb contains the pronoun already.
#The pronoun ''tu'' is used here instead of ''thu''
#The 1st person plural has a special inflected form, which like the first person singular is never used with a pronoun. This 1st person plural form is rarely used anymore.
 

====passive====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
!3 masc
|theirte e||an abairte e||chan abairte e||nach abairte e
|-
!3 fem
|theirte i||an abairte i||chan abairte i||nach abairte i
|-
!3 pl
|theirte iad||an abairte iad||chan abairte iad||nach abairte iad
|}

==Imperative Mood==

The imperative of ''abair'' is rarely used to mean "say!". Instead it often has the meaning of "What an X" Abair an duine ''What a guy!".

To express an imperative meaning ''say'', most speakers will use the regular verb ''can'' instead.

==[[References]]==
*[[Ronald Black|Black, Ronald]] (2006) ''Cothrom Ionnsachaidh'' Peebles: Self-published.
*[[Michel Byrne|Byrne, Michel]] (2002) ''Gràmar na Gàidhlig''. Eilean Leòdhais: Stòrlann-Acair.
*Deiseal Earranta tta (2006) Reference Cards: Sealbhairean Roimhearach/Riochdairean Roimhearach.
*[[Colin Mark|Mark, Colin]] (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge
*[[Colin Mark|Mark, Colin]] (2006), ''Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified" 2nd Edition. Edinburgh: Steve Savage Publishers. http://www.savagepublishers.com/138.html
*[[William Lamb|Lamb, William]] (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic''. 2nd edition. Munich: Lingcom Europa

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Irregular Verb]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Inflection]]

Abair (irregular verb)

2015-10-22T18:16:08Z

Cpatton: /* Uses */

The irregular verb ''Abair'' means "to say". ''Abair'' is one of 11 [[:Category:Irregular Verb|irregular verbs]] in Gaelic.

==Uses==
A common idiomatic usage: when used by itself, it means something along the line "what a...!" or "Say, look!".

''Abair latha math!''
'what a good day!'
''Abair duine laghach!''
'what a nice man'
''Abair car breagha!''
'what a beautiful car!'

==Summary of forms==

*Independent forms of the verb ''abair'' are used without any particles.
*Dependent forms of the verb ''abair'' are used after ''an'', ''nach'', ''gun'' and other verbal particles.
*Unlike regular verbs, the [[Dependent verb form (definition)|dependent]] past tense particle ''[[Do (tense marker)|do]]'' is never used with ''abair''.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!colspan="3"|context!!independent!!Dependent
|-align=center
!rowspan="6"|basic forms!!rowspan="3"|active!!past
|thuirt (or thubhairt)
|tuirt
|-align=center
!Future
|their
|abair3
|-align=center
!Relative Future
| ---
|their
|-align=center
!rowspan="3"|impersonal1!!past
|thuirteadh
|tuirteadh
|-align=center
!future
|theirear
|abrar3
|-align=center
!relative future
| ---
|theirear
|-align=center
!rowspan="2"|Conditional Mood!!colspan="2"|active
|theireadh2 (theirinn1 in 1st singular)
|colspan="2"|abradh2,3 (abrainn1,3 in 1st sing)
|-align=center
!colspan="2"|impersonal
|theirte
|colspan="2"|abairte
|-align=center
!rowspan="2"|Imperative Mood!!rowspan="2"|2nd person!!singular
|abair1,3||colspan="2" rowspan="8"|---
|-align=center
!plural
|abraibh1,3
|-align=center
!colspan="3"|verbal noun
|ràdh
|}
Notes:
*1 these forms are not used with any subject, they contain the subject in the inflection of the verb ([[Pro-Drop]])
*2 takes tu rather than thu in the 2nd person.
*3 Abair is rarely used to mean "Say" in the imperative and dependent forms in the future and conditional, instead the regular verb ''can'' is more often used.

==Non Conditional Moods (indicative, interrogative, negative)==
===[[Active voice (definition)|Active Voice]]===
====Past tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question!!embedded
|-
! 1
|thuirt mi ||an tuirt mi ||cha tuirt mi||nach tuirt mi||gun tuirt mi
|-
!2
|thuirt thu ||an tuirt thu ||cha tuirt thu||nach tuirt thu||gun tuirt thu
|-
!3 masc
|thuirt e||an tuirt e||cha tuirt e||nach tuirt e||gun tuirt e
|-
!3 fem
|thuirt i||an tuirt i||cha tuirt i||nach tuirt i||gun tuirt i
|-
! 1 pl
|thuirt sinn ||an tuirt sinn ||cha tuirt sinn||nach tuirt sinn||gun tuirt sinn
|-
!2 pl
|thuirt sibh ||an tuirt sibh ||cha tuirt sibh||nach tuirt sibh||gun tuirt sibh
|-
!3 pl
|thuirt iad||an tuirt iad||cha tuirt iad||nach tuirt iad||gun tuirt iad
|}
 

====Present tense====

As is common in Gaelic, there is no present tense form of the verb. When a simple present meaning ("I say something") or a progressive meaning (I am saying something) is intended, the [[Periphrastic (definition)|periphrastic construction]] is used with the present tense of the verb ''bi'' (be), i.e., ''tha'', along with the verbal noun.

:{|
|Tha||mi||ag ||ràdh
|-
|be.pres||1s||prog||say.vn
|-
|I'm saying/I say
|}
 

====Future tense====

The [[Future Tense (definition)|future tense]] in Gaelic is used to express the idea that an event will happen sometime after the speech time. Unlike English, the future tense can also be used with a present tense meaning, to express the idea that an action is [[Habitual Aspect (definition)|habitual]].

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question||Relative Future1
|-
! 1
|their mi ||an abair mi ||chan abair mi||nach abair mi||a their mi
|-
!2
|their thu ||an abair thu ||chan abair thu||nach abair thu||a their thu
|-
!3 masc
|their e||an abair e||chan abair e||nach abair e||a their e
|-
!3 fem
|their i||an abair i||chan abair i||nach abair i ||a their i
|-
! 1 pl
|their sinn ||an abair sinn ||chan abair sinn||nach abair sinn||a their sinn
|-
!2 pl
|their sibh ||an abair sibh ||chan abair sibh||nach abair sibh||a their sibh
|-
!3 pl
|their iad||an abair iad||chan abair iad||nach abair iad||a their iad
|}

Note:
# the relative future is used after certain particles such as ''ma'' or the particle used with questions ''a''.

----

===Impersonal/Passive Voice===

Gaelic verbs don't technically have a [[Passive (definition)|Passive]] verb form. Instead the passive is typically represented through a [[Periphrastic (definition)|periphrastic]] construction using the verbs ''Rach'' or ''Tha'' + the passive marker ''air''. It does, however, have an [[Impersonal (definition)|impersonal]] form. The '''Impersonal''' is used to indicate an indeterminate subject. ''thuirteadh'' can be best translated as "someone said". When used with a pronoun, the pronoun represents the logical object of the verb. So "thuirteadh e" means "Someone said it". This is often translated as "it was said", hence the typical "passive" label.

Since Gaelic doesn't distinguish between subject and object pronouns (unlike it's sibling [[Modern Irish]]), it is very difficult to determine if these pronouns are subjects or objects. We list them here as if they were subjects, with the understanding that the pronouns in the following tables represent the logical objects of the verb (the thing that was said, not the sayer).

====Past tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
!3 masc
|thuirteadh e||an tuirteadh e||cha tuirteadh e||nach tuirteadh e
|-
!3 fem
|thuirteadh i||an tuirteadh i||cha tuirteadh i||nach tuirteadh i
|-
!3 pl
|thuirteadh iad||an tuirteadh iad||cha tuirteadh iad||nach tuirteadh iad
|}
 

====Present tense====

The use of a passive in the present tense is odd, even in English. We leave this blank here.

====Future tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question||Relative Future1
|-
!3 masc
|theirear e||an abrar e||chan abrar e||nach abrar e||a theirear e
|-
!3 fem
|theirear i||an abrar i||chan abrar i||nach abrar i ||a theirear i
|-
!3 pl
|theirear iad||an abrar iad||chan abrar iad||nach abrar iad||a theirear iad
|}
Notes
# the relative future is used after certain particles such as ''a'' the particle used with questions, or ''ma'' "if".
 

==Conditional Mood==
====Active====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
! 1
| theirinn1 ||an abrainn ||chan abrainn||nach abrainn
|-
!2
|theireadh tu2||an abradh tu ||chan abradh tu||nach abradh tu
|-
!3 masc
|theireadh e||an abradh e||chan abradh e||nach abradh e
|-
!3 fem
|theireadh i||an abradh i||chan abradh i||nach abradh i
|-
! 1 pl
|theireadh sinn (theireamaid3)||an abradh sinn (an abramaid3)||chan abradh sinn (chan abramaid3)||nach abradh sinn (nach abramaid3)
|-
!2 pl
|theireadh sibh ||an abradh sibh ||chan abradh sibh||nach abradh sibh
|-
!3 pl
|theireadh iad||an abradh iad||chan abradh iad||nach abradh iad
|}
Notes:
#The 1st person singular form is never used with an overt pronoun, the verb contains the pronoun already.
#The pronoun ''tu'' is used here instead of ''thu''
#The 1st person plural has a special inflected form, which like the first person singular is never used with a pronoun. This 1st person plural form is rarely used anymore.
 

====passive====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
!3 masc
|theirte e||an abairte e||chan abairte e||nach abairte e
|-
!3 fem
|theirte i||an abairte i||chan abairte i||nach abairte i
|-
!3 pl
|theirte iad||an abairte iad||chan abairte iad||nach abairte iad
|}

==Imperative Mood==

The imperative of ''abair'' is rarely used to mean "say!". Instead it often has the meaning of "What an X" Abair an duine ''What a guy!".

To express an imperative meaning ''say'', most speakers will use the regular verb ''can'' instead.

==[[References]]==
*[[Ronald Black|Black, Ronald]] (2006) ''Cothrom Ionnsachaidh'' Peebles: Self-published.
*[[Michel Byrne|Byrne, Michel]] (2002) ''Gràmar na Gàidhlig''. Eilean Leòdhais: Stòrlann-Acair.
*Deiseal Earranta tta (2006) Reference Cards: Sealbhairean Roimhearach/Riochdairean Roimhearach.
*[[Colin Mark|Mark, Colin]] (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge
*[[Colin Mark|Mark, Colin]] (2006), ''Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified" 2nd Edition. Edinburgh: Steve Savage Publishers. http://www.savagepublishers.com/138.html
*[[William Lamb|Lamb, William]] (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic''. 2nd edition. Munich: Lingcom Europa

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Irregular Verb]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Inflection]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T18:14:20Z

Cpatton: /* Irregularity of Triggers and Targets */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
===Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets"===
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the (non-exhaustive) figure below. Further examples of triggers and targets may be found on the [[Lenition]] page.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|-
|the numerals 1 and 2
|following noun
|dhà chu
|two dogs
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page. A full description of the eclipsis mutation may be found on the [[Eclipsis]] page.

===Irregularity of Triggers and Targets===
While there are generalizations to be made about the occurrence of consonant mutation based off of the trigger and the target, there are, of course, exceptions. In Gaelic, though /t/ and /d/ regularly lenite to [h] and [j] or[γ] respectively, the noun ''taigh'' 'house' does not follow this rule.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==
Green, Antony D. 2007. Phonology limited (Linguistics in Potsdam 27). Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam.

Lieber, Rochelle. 1983. New developments in autosegmental morphology: Consonant mutation. WCCFL 2: 165-175.

Pyatt, Elizabeth J. 1997. An integrated model of the syntax and phonology of Celtic mutation. Harvard University dissertation.

Rogers, Henry. 1972. The initial mutations in modern Scots Gaelic. Studia Celtica 7: 63-85.

Stewart, Thomas W. 2013. The sub-types of initial lenition in Scottish Gaelic. In Cruichshank, Janet and Robert McColl Millar (eds.) 2013. After the Storm: Papers fro the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster triennial meeting, Aberdeen 2012. Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland, 100-116.

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Abair (irregular verb)

2015-10-22T18:09:16Z

Cpatton: /* Uses */

The irregular verb ''Abair'' means "to say". ''Abair'' is one of 11 [[:Category:Irregular Verb|irregular verbs]] in Gaelic.

==Uses==
A common idiomatic usage: when used by itself, it means something along the line "what a...!" or "Say, look!".

*''Abair latha math'' 'what a good day'
*Abair duine laghach 'what a nice man'
*Abair car breagha 'what a beautiful car'

==Summary of forms==

*Independent forms of the verb ''abair'' are used without any particles.
*Dependent forms of the verb ''abair'' are used after ''an'', ''nach'', ''gun'' and other verbal particles.
*Unlike regular verbs, the [[Dependent verb form (definition)|dependent]] past tense particle ''[[Do (tense marker)|do]]'' is never used with ''abair''.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!colspan="3"|context!!independent!!Dependent
|-align=center
!rowspan="6"|basic forms!!rowspan="3"|active!!past
|thuirt (or thubhairt)
|tuirt
|-align=center
!Future
|their
|abair3
|-align=center
!Relative Future
| ---
|their
|-align=center
!rowspan="3"|impersonal1!!past
|thuirteadh
|tuirteadh
|-align=center
!future
|theirear
|abrar3
|-align=center
!relative future
| ---
|theirear
|-align=center
!rowspan="2"|Conditional Mood!!colspan="2"|active
|theireadh2 (theirinn1 in 1st singular)
|colspan="2"|abradh2,3 (abrainn1,3 in 1st sing)
|-align=center
!colspan="2"|impersonal
|theirte
|colspan="2"|abairte
|-align=center
!rowspan="2"|Imperative Mood!!rowspan="2"|2nd person!!singular
|abair1,3||colspan="2" rowspan="8"|---
|-align=center
!plural
|abraibh1,3
|-align=center
!colspan="3"|verbal noun
|ràdh
|}
Notes:
*1 these forms are not used with any subject, they contain the subject in the inflection of the verb ([[Pro-Drop]])
*2 takes tu rather than thu in the 2nd person.
*3 Abair is rarely used to mean "Say" in the imperative and dependent forms in the future and conditional, instead the regular verb ''can'' is more often used.

==Non Conditional Moods (indicative, interrogative, negative)==
===[[Active voice (definition)|Active Voice]]===
====Past tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question!!embedded
|-
! 1
|thuirt mi ||an tuirt mi ||cha tuirt mi||nach tuirt mi||gun tuirt mi
|-
!2
|thuirt thu ||an tuirt thu ||cha tuirt thu||nach tuirt thu||gun tuirt thu
|-
!3 masc
|thuirt e||an tuirt e||cha tuirt e||nach tuirt e||gun tuirt e
|-
!3 fem
|thuirt i||an tuirt i||cha tuirt i||nach tuirt i||gun tuirt i
|-
! 1 pl
|thuirt sinn ||an tuirt sinn ||cha tuirt sinn||nach tuirt sinn||gun tuirt sinn
|-
!2 pl
|thuirt sibh ||an tuirt sibh ||cha tuirt sibh||nach tuirt sibh||gun tuirt sibh
|-
!3 pl
|thuirt iad||an tuirt iad||cha tuirt iad||nach tuirt iad||gun tuirt iad
|}
 

====Present tense====

As is common in Gaelic, there is no present tense form of the verb. When a simple present meaning ("I say something") or a progressive meaning (I am saying something) is intended, the [[Periphrastic (definition)|periphrastic construction]] is used with the present tense of the verb ''bi'' (be), i.e., ''tha'', along with the verbal noun.

:{|
|Tha||mi||ag ||ràdh
|-
|be.pres||1s||prog||say.vn
|-
|I'm saying/I say
|}
 

====Future tense====

The [[Future Tense (definition)|future tense]] in Gaelic is used to express the idea that an event will happen sometime after the speech time. Unlike English, the future tense can also be used with a present tense meaning, to express the idea that an action is [[Habitual Aspect (definition)|habitual]].

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question||Relative Future1
|-
! 1
|their mi ||an abair mi ||chan abair mi||nach abair mi||a their mi
|-
!2
|their thu ||an abair thu ||chan abair thu||nach abair thu||a their thu
|-
!3 masc
|their e||an abair e||chan abair e||nach abair e||a their e
|-
!3 fem
|their i||an abair i||chan abair i||nach abair i ||a their i
|-
! 1 pl
|their sinn ||an abair sinn ||chan abair sinn||nach abair sinn||a their sinn
|-
!2 pl
|their sibh ||an abair sibh ||chan abair sibh||nach abair sibh||a their sibh
|-
!3 pl
|their iad||an abair iad||chan abair iad||nach abair iad||a their iad
|}

Note:
# the relative future is used after certain particles such as ''ma'' or the particle used with questions ''a''.

----

===Impersonal/Passive Voice===

Gaelic verbs don't technically have a [[Passive (definition)|Passive]] verb form. Instead the passive is typically represented through a [[Periphrastic (definition)|periphrastic]] construction using the verbs ''Rach'' or ''Tha'' + the passive marker ''air''. It does, however, have an [[Impersonal (definition)|impersonal]] form. The '''Impersonal''' is used to indicate an indeterminate subject. ''thuirteadh'' can be best translated as "someone said". When used with a pronoun, the pronoun represents the logical object of the verb. So "thuirteadh e" means "Someone said it". This is often translated as "it was said", hence the typical "passive" label.

Since Gaelic doesn't distinguish between subject and object pronouns (unlike it's sibling [[Modern Irish]]), it is very difficult to determine if these pronouns are subjects or objects. We list them here as if they were subjects, with the understanding that the pronouns in the following tables represent the logical objects of the verb (the thing that was said, not the sayer).

====Past tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
!3 masc
|thuirteadh e||an tuirteadh e||cha tuirteadh e||nach tuirteadh e
|-
!3 fem
|thuirteadh i||an tuirteadh i||cha tuirteadh i||nach tuirteadh i
|-
!3 pl
|thuirteadh iad||an tuirteadh iad||cha tuirteadh iad||nach tuirteadh iad
|}
 

====Present tense====

The use of a passive in the present tense is odd, even in English. We leave this blank here.

====Future tense====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question||Relative Future1
|-
!3 masc
|theirear e||an abrar e||chan abrar e||nach abrar e||a theirear e
|-
!3 fem
|theirear i||an abrar i||chan abrar i||nach abrar i ||a theirear i
|-
!3 pl
|theirear iad||an abrar iad||chan abrar iad||nach abrar iad||a theirear iad
|}
Notes
# the relative future is used after certain particles such as ''a'' the particle used with questions, or ''ma'' "if".
 

==Conditional Mood==
====Active====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
! 1
| theirinn1 ||an abrainn ||chan abrainn||nach abrainn
|-
!2
|theireadh tu2||an abradh tu ||chan abradh tu||nach abradh tu
|-
!3 masc
|theireadh e||an abradh e||chan abradh e||nach abradh e
|-
!3 fem
|theireadh i||an abradh i||chan abradh i||nach abradh i
|-
! 1 pl
|theireadh sinn (theireamaid3)||an abradh sinn (an abramaid3)||chan abradh sinn (chan abramaid3)||nach abradh sinn (nach abramaid3)
|-
!2 pl
|theireadh sibh ||an abradh sibh ||chan abradh sibh||nach abradh sibh
|-
!3 pl
|theireadh iad||an abradh iad||chan abradh iad||nach abradh iad
|}
Notes:
#The 1st person singular form is never used with an overt pronoun, the verb contains the pronoun already.
#The pronoun ''tu'' is used here instead of ''thu''
#The 1st person plural has a special inflected form, which like the first person singular is never used with a pronoun. This 1st person plural form is rarely used anymore.
 

====passive====

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! !!Declarative!!Question!!Negative!!Negative Question
|-
!3 masc
|theirte e||an abairte e||chan abairte e||nach abairte e
|-
!3 fem
|theirte i||an abairte i||chan abairte i||nach abairte i
|-
!3 pl
|theirte iad||an abairte iad||chan abairte iad||nach abairte iad
|}

==Imperative Mood==

The imperative of ''abair'' is rarely used to mean "say!". Instead it often has the meaning of "What an X" Abair an duine ''What a guy!".

To express an imperative meaning ''say'', most speakers will use the regular verb ''can'' instead.

==[[References]]==
*[[Ronald Black|Black, Ronald]] (2006) ''Cothrom Ionnsachaidh'' Peebles: Self-published.
*[[Michel Byrne|Byrne, Michel]] (2002) ''Gràmar na Gàidhlig''. Eilean Leòdhais: Stòrlann-Acair.
*Deiseal Earranta tta (2006) Reference Cards: Sealbhairean Roimhearach/Riochdairean Roimhearach.
*[[Colin Mark|Mark, Colin]] (2004) ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary/Am faclair Gàidhlig-Beurla.'' London: Routledge
*[[Colin Mark|Mark, Colin]] (2006), ''Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified" 2nd Edition. Edinburgh: Steve Savage Publishers. http://www.savagepublishers.com/138.html
*[[William Lamb|Lamb, William]] (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic''. 2nd edition. Munich: Lingcom Europa

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Irregular Verb]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Inflection]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T18:02:50Z

Cpatton: /* Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets" */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
===Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets"===
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the (non-exhaustive) figure below. Further examples of triggers and targets may be found on the [[Lenition]] page.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|-
|the numerals 1 and 2
|following noun
|dhà chu
|two dogs
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page. A full description of the eclipsis mutation may be found on the [[Eclipsis]] page.

===Irregularity of Triggers and Targets===
While there are generalizations to be made about the occurrence of consonant mutation based off of the trigger and the target, there are, of course, exceptions. In Gaelic, though /t/ and /d/ regularly lenite to /h/ and /j/ or /γ/ respectively, the noun ''taigh'' 'house' does not follow this rule.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==
Green, Antony D. 2007. Phonology limited (Linguistics in Potsdam 27). Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam.

Lieber, Rochelle. 1983. New developments in autosegmental morphology: Consonant mutation. WCCFL 2: 165-175.

Pyatt, Elizabeth J. 1997. An integrated model of the syntax and phonology of Celtic mutation. Harvard University dissertation.

Rogers, Henry. 1972. The initial mutations in modern Scots Gaelic. Studia Celtica 7: 63-85.

Stewart, Thomas W. 2013. The sub-types of initial lenition in Scottish Gaelic. In Cruichshank, Janet and Robert McColl Millar (eds.) 2013. After the Storm: Papers fro the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster triennial meeting, Aberdeen 2012. Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland, 100-116.

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:58:14Z

Cpatton: /* Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets" */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
===Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets"===
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the (non-exhaustive) figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|-
|the numerals 1 and 2
|following noun
|dhà chu
|two dogs
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page. A full description of the eclipsis mutation may be found on the [[Eclipsis]] page.

===Irregularity of Triggers and Targets===
While there are generalizations to be made about the occurrence of consonant mutation based off of the trigger and the target, there are, of course, exceptions. In Gaelic, though /t/ and /d/ regularly lenite to /h/ and /j/ or /γ/ respectively, the noun ''taigh'' 'house' does not follow this rule.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==
Green, Antony D. 2007. Phonology limited (Linguistics in Potsdam 27). Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam.

Lieber, Rochelle. 1983. New developments in autosegmental morphology: Consonant mutation. WCCFL 2: 165-175.

Pyatt, Elizabeth J. 1997. An integrated model of the syntax and phonology of Celtic mutation. Harvard University dissertation.

Rogers, Henry. 1972. The initial mutations in modern Scots Gaelic. Studia Celtica 7: 63-85.

Stewart, Thomas W. 2013. The sub-types of initial lenition in Scottish Gaelic. In Cruichshank, Janet and Robert McColl Millar (eds.) 2013. After the Storm: Papers fro the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster triennial meeting, Aberdeen 2012. Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland, 100-116.

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:56:19Z

Cpatton: /* Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets"= */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
===Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets"===
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the (non-exhaustive) figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
-
|the numerals 1 and 2
|following noun
|dhà chu
|two dogs
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page. A full description of the eclipsis mutation may be found on the [[Eclipsis]] page.

===Irregularity of Triggers and Targets===
While there are generalizations to be made about the occurrence of consonant mutation based off of the trigger and the target, there are, of course, exceptions. In Gaelic, though /t/ and /d/ regularly lenite to /h/ and /j/ or /γ/ respectively, the noun ''taigh'' 'house' does not follow this rule.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==
Green, Antony D. 2007. Phonology limited (Linguistics in Potsdam 27). Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam.

Lieber, Rochelle. 1983. New developments in autosegmental morphology: Consonant mutation. WCCFL 2: 165-175.

Pyatt, Elizabeth J. 1997. An integrated model of the syntax and phonology of Celtic mutation. Harvard University dissertation.

Rogers, Henry. 1972. The initial mutations in modern Scots Gaelic. Studia Celtica 7: 63-85.

Stewart, Thomas W. 2013. The sub-types of initial lenition in Scottish Gaelic. In Cruichshank, Janet and Robert McColl Millar (eds.) 2013. After the Storm: Papers fro the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster triennial meeting, Aberdeen 2012. Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland, 100-116.

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:56:00Z

Cpatton: /* Morphological and Syntactic Triggering */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
==Explanation of "Triggers" and "Targets"===
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the (non-exhaustive) figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
-
|the numerals 1 and 2
|following noun
|dhà chu
|two dogs
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page. A full description of the eclipsis mutation may be found on the [[Eclipsis]] page.

===Irregularity of Triggers and Targets===
While there are generalizations to be made about the occurrence of consonant mutation based off of the trigger and the target, there are, of course, exceptions. In Gaelic, though /t/ and /d/ regularly lenite to /h/ and /j/ or /γ/ respectively, the noun ''taigh'' 'house' does not follow this rule.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==
Green, Antony D. 2007. Phonology limited (Linguistics in Potsdam 27). Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam.

Lieber, Rochelle. 1983. New developments in autosegmental morphology: Consonant mutation. WCCFL 2: 165-175.

Pyatt, Elizabeth J. 1997. An integrated model of the syntax and phonology of Celtic mutation. Harvard University dissertation.

Rogers, Henry. 1972. The initial mutations in modern Scots Gaelic. Studia Celtica 7: 63-85.

Stewart, Thomas W. 2013. The sub-types of initial lenition in Scottish Gaelic. In Cruichshank, Janet and Robert McColl Millar (eds.) 2013. After the Storm: Papers fro the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster triennial meeting, Aberdeen 2012. Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland, 100-116.

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Gender

2015-10-22T17:50:09Z

Cpatton: /* Predicting Gender */

''for a definition of Gender see [[Gender (definition)]]''

There are two genders in Scottish Gaelic: [[Masculine (definition)|Masculine]] and [[Feminine (definition)|Feminine]].

The gender of a noun affects a number of grammatical properties.
*The form of the [[articles|article]]: ''an clach'' 'the stone' (m) vs ''a' chaora'' 'the sheep' (f)
*The form of adjectives: ''an clach mòr'' 'the book stone' vs ''a' chaora mhòr'' 'the big sheep'
*The pronoun used to refer to the noun (there is no pronoun equivalent to "it" in Scottish Gaelic.) Masculine nouns are referred to with ''e''; feminine nouns are referred to with ''i''.

==Predicting Gender==
In general, assignment to a particular gender is arbitrary. However, in some cases it can be predicted either by the meaning of the noun or by the noun's form.
Ó Muirí (1988), based on a survey of traditional grammars, lists some heuristics for assigning gender to a noun. Note that in most cases there are exceptions to these heuristics.
# Names of males and common nouns referring to males are generally masculine.
#Those of females and those referring to females are generally feminine. There are many exceptions to (1) and (2): ''boireannach'' 'woman', ''cailin'' 'girl' are masculine and ''sgalag'' 'male farm worker' is feminine.
#Trees, elements, seasons, days, metals, colors, grains, vegetables, liquors and timber are typically masculine
#The names of countries, heavenly bodies, musical instruments, diseases, reptiles and copses are typically feminine
#Nouns ending in ''-e'', ''-ag'', ''-lann'', and ''-achd'' are typically feminine,
#Nouns ending ''-air'', ''-eir'', ''-ire'', ''-a'', ''-iche'', ''-ach'', ''-adh'', ''-(e)an'', ''-as'' are typically masculine. (List based on Ó Muirí 1988)
Gillies (1896) notes that there is a trend, by no means absolute, that when the vowel in the last syllable is broad, the noun is often masculine. Ó Muirí (1988) claims that the gender of 91% of nouns is actually predictable based on form.

==Dialect Variation==

Most dictionaries list one particular gender for nouns in Scottish Gaelic, but it's possible to find variation among dialects, where a particular noun shifts gender from the standard. For example, in Glendale Gaelic, words beginning with ''seann'' 'old' often shift gender to the feminine, even when masculine without ''seann''.

===Terminal Dialects===
In dialects which are close to extinction, the gender distinction often disappears or applies very irregularly (Dorian 1976). For example, in East Sutherland Gaelic, some cues to gender, such as the [[lenition]] of the initial consonants of adjectives following the feminine noun, are frequently omitted; however other cues, such as the lenition after the feminine article, are more robust.

==References==
*Adger, David (2009) Gaelic Morphology. In Watson & McLeod (eds). '''The Edinburgh Companion to the Gaelic Language''. Edinburgh University Press.
*Calder, George (1923) ''A Gaelic Grammar''. Glasgow: Alex MacLaren
*Dorian, Nancy C. (1976) Gender in a Terminal Gaelic Dialect. ''Scottish Gaelic Studies'' 12.2, 279-282
Gillies, H. Cameron (1896) ''The Elements of Gaelic Grammar''. London: David Nutt
*Ó Muirí, Damien (1988) Gender of the Noun in Scottish Gaelic. ''Proceedings of the first North American Congress of Celtic Studies Held at Ottawa from 26th-30th March 1986. 423-441.

Gender

2015-10-22T17:49:52Z

Cpatton: /* Predicting Gender */

''for a definition of Gender see [[Gender (definition)]]''

There are two genders in Scottish Gaelic: [[Masculine (definition)|Masculine]] and [[Feminine (definition)|Feminine]].

The gender of a noun affects a number of grammatical properties.
*The form of the [[articles|article]]: ''an clach'' 'the stone' (m) vs ''a' chaora'' 'the sheep' (f)
*The form of adjectives: ''an clach mòr'' 'the book stone' vs ''a' chaora mhòr'' 'the big sheep'
*The pronoun used to refer to the noun (there is no pronoun equivalent to "it" in Scottish Gaelic.) Masculine nouns are referred to with ''e''; feminine nouns are referred to with ''i''.

==Predicting Gender==
In general, assignment to a particular gender is arbitrary. However, in some cases it can be predicted either by the meaning of the noun or by the noun's form.
Ó Muirí (1988), based on a survey of traditional grammars, lists some heuristics for assigning gender to a noun. Note that in most cases there are exceptions to these heuristics.
# Names of males and common nouns referring to males are generally masculine.
#Those of females and those referring to females are generally feminine. There are many exceptions to (1) and (2): ''boireannach'' 'woman', ''cailin'' 'girl' are masculine and ''sgalag'' 'male farm worker' is feminine.
#Trees, elements, seasons, days, metals, colors, grains, vegetables, liquors and timber are typically masculine
#The names of countries, heavenly bodies, musical instruments, diseases, reptiles and copses are typically feminine
#Nouns ending in ''-e'', ''-ag'', ''-lann'', and ''-achd'' are typically feminine,
#Nouns ending ''-air', ''-eir'', ''-ire'', ''-a'', ''-iche'', ''-ach'', ''-adh'', ''-(e)an'', ''-as'' are typically masculine. (List based on Ó Muirí 1988)
Gillies (1896) notes that there is a trend, by no means absolute, that when the vowel in the last syllable is broad, the noun is often masculine. Ó Muirí (1988) claims that the gender of 91% of nouns is actually predictable based on form.

==Dialect Variation==

Most dictionaries list one particular gender for nouns in Scottish Gaelic, but it's possible to find variation among dialects, where a particular noun shifts gender from the standard. For example, in Glendale Gaelic, words beginning with ''seann'' 'old' often shift gender to the feminine, even when masculine without ''seann''.

===Terminal Dialects===
In dialects which are close to extinction, the gender distinction often disappears or applies very irregularly (Dorian 1976). For example, in East Sutherland Gaelic, some cues to gender, such as the [[lenition]] of the initial consonants of adjectives following the feminine noun, are frequently omitted; however other cues, such as the lenition after the feminine article, are more robust.

==References==
*Adger, David (2009) Gaelic Morphology. In Watson & McLeod (eds). '''The Edinburgh Companion to the Gaelic Language''. Edinburgh University Press.
*Calder, George (1923) ''A Gaelic Grammar''. Glasgow: Alex MacLaren
*Dorian, Nancy C. (1976) Gender in a Terminal Gaelic Dialect. ''Scottish Gaelic Studies'' 12.2, 279-282
Gillies, H. Cameron (1896) ''The Elements of Gaelic Grammar''. London: David Nutt
*Ó Muirí, Damien (1988) Gender of the Noun in Scottish Gaelic. ''Proceedings of the first North American Congress of Celtic Studies Held at Ottawa from 26th-30th March 1986. 423-441.

Gender

2015-10-22T17:49:15Z

Cpatton: /* Predicting Gender */

''for a definition of Gender see [[Gender (definition)]]''

There are two genders in Scottish Gaelic: [[Masculine (definition)|Masculine]] and [[Feminine (definition)|Feminine]].

The gender of a noun affects a number of grammatical properties.
*The form of the [[articles|article]]: ''an clach'' 'the stone' (m) vs ''a' chaora'' 'the sheep' (f)
*The form of adjectives: ''an clach mòr'' 'the book stone' vs ''a' chaora mhòr'' 'the big sheep'
*The pronoun used to refer to the noun (there is no pronoun equivalent to "it" in Scottish Gaelic.) Masculine nouns are referred to with ''e''; feminine nouns are referred to with ''i''.

==Predicting Gender==
In general, assignment to a particular gender is arbitrary. However, in some cases it can be predicted either by the meaning of the noun or by the noun's form.
Ó Muirí (1988), based on a survey of traditional grammars, lists some heuristics for assigning gender to a noun. Note that in most cases there are exceptions to these heuristics.
# Names of males and common nouns referring to males are generally masculine.
#Those of females and those referring to females are generally feminine. There are many exceptions to (1) and (2): ''boireannach'' 'woman', ''cailin'' 'girl' are masculine and ''sgalag'' 'male farm worker' is feminine.
#Trees, elements, seasons, days, metals, colors, grains, vegetables, liquors and timber are typically masculine
#The names of countries, heavenly bodies, musical instruments, diseases, reptiles and copses are typically feminine
#Nouns ending in ''-e'', ''-ag'', "-lann', and ''-achd'' are typically feminine,
#Nouns ending ''-air', ''-eir'', ''-ire'', ''-a'', ''-iche'', ''-ach'', ''-adh'', ''-(e)an'', ''-as'' are typically masculine. (List based on Ó Muirí 1988)
Gillies (1896) notes that there is a trend, by no means absolute, that when the vowel in the last syllable is broad, the noun is often masculine. Ó Muirí (1988) claims that the gender of 91% of nouns is actually predictable based on form.

==Dialect Variation==

Most dictionaries list one particular gender for nouns in Scottish Gaelic, but it's possible to find variation among dialects, where a particular noun shifts gender from the standard. For example, in Glendale Gaelic, words beginning with ''seann'' 'old' often shift gender to the feminine, even when masculine without ''seann''.

===Terminal Dialects===
In dialects which are close to extinction, the gender distinction often disappears or applies very irregularly (Dorian 1976). For example, in East Sutherland Gaelic, some cues to gender, such as the [[lenition]] of the initial consonants of adjectives following the feminine noun, are frequently omitted; however other cues, such as the lenition after the feminine article, are more robust.

==References==
*Adger, David (2009) Gaelic Morphology. In Watson & McLeod (eds). '''The Edinburgh Companion to the Gaelic Language''. Edinburgh University Press.
*Calder, George (1923) ''A Gaelic Grammar''. Glasgow: Alex MacLaren
*Dorian, Nancy C. (1976) Gender in a Terminal Gaelic Dialect. ''Scottish Gaelic Studies'' 12.2, 279-282
Gillies, H. Cameron (1896) ''The Elements of Gaelic Grammar''. London: David Nutt
*Ó Muirí, Damien (1988) Gender of the Noun in Scottish Gaelic. ''Proceedings of the first North American Congress of Celtic Studies Held at Ottawa from 26th-30th March 1986. 423-441.

Gender

2015-10-22T17:47:58Z

Cpatton: /* Dialect Variation */

''for a definition of Gender see [[Gender (definition)]]''

There are two genders in Scottish Gaelic: [[Masculine (definition)|Masculine]] and [[Feminine (definition)|Feminine]].

The gender of a noun affects a number of grammatical properties.
*The form of the [[articles|article]]: ''an clach'' 'the stone' (m) vs ''a' chaora'' 'the sheep' (f)
*The form of adjectives: ''an clach mòr'' 'the book stone' vs ''a' chaora mhòr'' 'the big sheep'
*The pronoun used to refer to the noun (there is no pronoun equivalent to "it" in Scottish Gaelic.) Masculine nouns are referred to with ''e''; feminine nouns are referred to with ''i''.

==Predicting Gender==
In general, assignment to a particular gender is arbitrary. However, in some cases it can be predicted either by the meaning of the noun or by the noun's form.
Ó Muirí (1988), based on a survey of traditional grammars lists some heuristics for assigning gender to a noun. Note that in most cases there are exceptions to these heuristics.
# Names of males and common nouns referring to males are generally masculine.
#Those of females and those referring to females are generally feminine. There are many exceptions to (1) and (2): ''boireannach'' 'woman', ''cailin'' 'girl' are masculine and ''sgalag'' 'male farm worker' is feminine.
#Trees, elements, seasons, days, metals, colors, grains, vegetables, liquors and timber are typicallymasculine
#The names of countries, heavenly bodies, musical instruments, diseases, reptiles and copses are typically feminine
#Nouns ending in ''-e'', ''-ag'', "-lann', and ''-achd'' are typically feminine,
#Nouns ending ''-air', ''-eir'', ''-ire'', ''-a'', ''-iche'', ''-ach'', ''-adh'', ''-(e)an'', ''-as'' are typically masculine. (List based on Ó Muirí 1988)
Gillies (1896) notes that there is a trend, by no means absolute, that when the vowel in the last syllable is broad, the noun is often masculine. Ó Muirí (1988) claims that the gender of 91% of nouns is actually predictable based on form.

==Dialect Variation==

Most dictionaries list one particular gender for nouns in Scottish Gaelic, but it's possible to find variation among dialects, where a particular noun shifts gender from the standard. For example, in Glendale Gaelic, words beginning with ''seann'' 'old' often shift gender to the feminine, even when masculine without ''seann''.

===Terminal Dialects===
In dialects which are close to extinction, the gender distinction often disappears or applies very irregularly (Dorian 1976). For example, in East Sutherland Gaelic, some cues to gender, such as the [[lenition]] of the initial consonants of adjectives following the feminine noun, are frequently omitted; however other cues, such as the lenition after the feminine article, are more robust.

==References==
*Adger, David (2009) Gaelic Morphology. In Watson & McLeod (eds). '''The Edinburgh Companion to the Gaelic Language''. Edinburgh University Press.
*Calder, George (1923) ''A Gaelic Grammar''. Glasgow: Alex MacLaren
*Dorian, Nancy C. (1976) Gender in a Terminal Gaelic Dialect. ''Scottish Gaelic Studies'' 12.2, 279-282
Gillies, H. Cameron (1896) ''The Elements of Gaelic Grammar''. London: David Nutt
*Ó Muirí, Damien (1988) Gender of the Noun in Scottish Gaelic. ''Proceedings of the first North American Congress of Celtic Studies Held at Ottawa from 26th-30th March 1986. 423-441.

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:45:40Z

Cpatton: /* References */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the (non-exhaustive) figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page. A full description of the eclipsis mutation may be found on the [[Eclipsis]] page.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==
Green, Antony D. 2007. Phonology limited (Linguistics in Potsdam 27). Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam.

Lieber, Rochelle. 1983. New developments in autosegmental morphology: Consonant mutation. WCCFL 2: 165-175.

Pyatt, Elizabeth J. 1997. An integrated model of the syntax and phonology of Celtic mutation. Harvard University dissertation.

Rogers, Henry. 1972. The initial mutations in modern Scots Gaelic. Studia Celtica 7: 63-85.

Stewart, Thomas W. 2013. The sub-types of initial lenition in Scottish Gaelic. In Cruichshank, Janet and Robert McColl Millar (eds.) 2013. After the Storm: Papers fro the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster triennial meeting, Aberdeen 2012. Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ireland, 100-116.

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:39:10Z

Cpatton: /* Morphological and Syntactic Triggering */

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:38:11Z

Cpatton: /* Morphological and Syntactic Triggering */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|certain possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:37:56Z

Cpatton: /* Morphological and Syntactic Triggering */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|some possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:37:36Z

Cpatton: /* Morphological and Syntactic Triggering */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|definite noun
|dh'obair
|air a' bhàta
|on the boat
|-
|some possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-22T17:36:09Z

Cpatton: /* Morphological and Syntactic Triggering */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==
Although these mutations surface as phonological changes, the historical (diachronic) sources of these changes are should not be considered caused by the phonological system of the current (synchronic) language (Stewart 2013, Green 2007, Pyatt 1997, Rogers 1972, Leiber 1983).

Initial consonant mutations are the changes of a "target" caused by a "trigger." For example, a very common type of initial consonant mutation is the [[lenition]] of feminine adjectives which follow a singular feminine noun. In this case, the "target" is the adjective ''toilichte'' 'happy', and the trigger is the noun ''nighean'', which has the inherent properties of feminine [[gender]] and singular number. Because it is a fact of Gaelic grammar that feminine singular nouns cause lenition of the following adjectives which describes them, the initial consonant of the adjectives '''''t'''oilichte'' becomes '''''th'''oilichte'' (example 1a). This contrasts with the example in 1b, where ''gille'' 'boy' does not trigger a consonant mutation on the same following adjective, because it is masculine singular, not feminine.

(1a)
:{|
|nighean
|'''th'''oilichte
|-
|girl
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy girl"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|gille
|'''t'''oilichte
|-
|boy
|happy
|-
|colspan="3"|"a happy boy"
|}

Triggers in the language, exemplified by the feminine singular noun ''nighean'' above, tend to be syntactic or morphological, i.e. they encode grammatical information of the language. Triggers are always associated with a target, as presented in the figure below.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Trigger
!Target
!Example
!English Translation
|-
|feminine singular noun
|following adjective
|caora mhòr
|a big sheep
|-
|definite article
|feminine singular nouns starting with b, c, g, m, p, f
|a' chaora
|the sheep
|-
|regular past tense
|imperative form of the verb
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|preposition
|work!
|dh'obair
|-
|some possessive pronouns
|possessed noun
|a chòta
|his coat
|}

The consonant mutations tend to be marked orthographically in written Gaelic. For example, lenition is represented with an orthographic <h> following the lenited consonant, except for <l>, <n>, <r>. In (1a) above, the [t] of ''toilichte'' becomes [h] in ''thoilichte''. A full description of the phonetic changes of the lenited forms may be found on the [[Lenition]] page.

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Verb Inflection

2015-10-04T21:12:20Z

Cpatton: /* Present Tense */

==Past Tense==

Scottish Gaelic verbs can encode tense, aspect, modality, voice, person, and number.

===Declarative===

With regular verbs in [[Declarative (definition)|declarative]] context, the past tense is formed by [[Lenition|leniting]] the first consonant of the [[Imperative (definition)|imperative]] verb form. With [[Vowel (definition)|vowel]] initial forms, one prefixes an orthographic <dh'> (pronounced as [ɣ] before [[Broad (definition)|broad]] vowels and [j] before [[Slender (definition)|slender]] ones). Forms beginning with /f/, are both lenited and preceded by <dh'>

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Imperative
!English Translation
!Past Tense
!English Translation
|-
|fàg!
|leave!
|dh'fhàg
|left
|-
|ionnsaich!
|learn!
|dh'ionnsaich
|learnt
|-
|pòg!
|kiss!
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|obair!
|work!
|dh'obair
|worked
|-
|sabaid!
|fight!
|shabaid
|fought
|-
|sgrìobh!
|write!
|sgrìobh
|wrote
|-
|ruith!
|run!
|ruith
|run
|-
|seas!
|sit!
|sheas
|sat
|-
|teasgaisg!
|teach!
|theagaisg
|taught
|-
|tog!
|lift!
|thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses===

In negatives, questions, and declarative embedded clauses, the verb takes its [[Dependent (definition)|dependent]] form. In the past tense, the dependent form is usually identical to the normal past, but will be preceded by the particle ''do''. ''Do'' is required in formal speech and in prescriptive writing, but is often left out in rapid speech. Some dialects (e.g. Lewis) tend to leave the particle off more frequently.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Past Tense
!Question
!Negation
!Negative Question
!Embedded clause
!English
|-
|phòg
|an do phòg
|cha do phòg
|nach do phòg
|gun do phòg
|kissed
|-
|dh'obair
|an do dh'obair
|cha do dh'obair
|nach do dh'obair
|gun do dh'obair
|worked
|-
|shabaid
|an do shabaid
|cha do shabaid
|nach do shabaid
|gun do shabaid
|fought
|-
|sheas
|an do sheas
|cha do sheas
|nach do sheas
|gun do sheas
|sat
|-
|thog
|an do thog
|cha do thog
|nach do thog
|gun do thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===Impersonal (Passive) forms===
In the impersonal passive, the root is lenited and the suffix -eadh/-adh is attached to the end of the word. The impersonal passive demotes the agent/do-er, and it no longer appears in the structure. Instead, the patient/undergo-er is highlighted, as in the examples (a) and (d) based off of Lamb 2001 (pg. 64).<br\>

{|:
(a)
|chreachadh
|am
|baile
|-
|destroy.IMPERS
|the
|town.NOM
|-
|"colspan=5"| "The town was destroyed"
|}

{|:
(b)
|Dh'oladh
|am
|bainne
|-
|drink.past.imp
|the
|milk
|-
|Verb
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "The milk was drunk."
|}

{|:
(c)
|Mharbhadh
|Iain
|leis
|a'
|ghunna
|-
|kill.past.imp
|John
|with
|the
|gun.dat
|-
|Verb
|Noun
|Adposition
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "John was killed with a gun."
|}

The Impersonal form contrasts with the active sentence in (d) where the third person plural agent ''iad'' appears.
{|:
(d)
|cheach
|iad
|a'
|bhaile
|-
|destroy.PAST
|they
|the
|town
|-
|"colspan=5"| "They destroyed the town"
|}

==Present Tense==
Most verbs in Gaelic don't have a simple present tense form, and instead use the strategies below in the present tense. The primary exceptions are the [[Copula]] and the verb [[Bi (auxiliary)]]

To mark what translates as the present tense in English, there are two strategies. One is to use the progressive:

{|:
|Tha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|ann
|-
|COP.PRES
|I
|PROG
|go
|there
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I'm going there.'
|}

When the intention is a habitual, the future tense is used.

{|:
|Ithidh
|mi
|a'
|bhiadh
|a
|h-uile
|latha
|-
|eat.FUT
|I
|aL
|food
|every
|day
|-
|colspan="5"| "I eat food every day" (literally, "I will eat food every day")
|}

==Future Tense==
*Future: Fuirichidh, chan fhuirich, am fuirich, cò fuiricheas
*Future:
**Yes form: suffix -idh (ithidh òlaidh)
**No form: DON'T suffix -idh: Chan ith
*Cha is chan before vowels, and lenites but not d and t. Chan fhag
*Question form: DON'T suffix -idh, no lenition after "an" and "Nach"
*Future tense
**Yes form ROOT +(A)IDH
**No form CHA ROOT
**Q/Neg AN/AM/NACH ROOT
**Rel fut Co etc + ROOT+(e)AS

===Impersonal (passive) forms===
*suffix -(e)ar
** dùinear e 'someone shut'

==Relative Future==
''see also [[Relative Future]]''
*the root is aspirated
*-(e)as is suffixed.
*The second person pronoun is always tu rather than thu

==Conditional Mood==
First person singular
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(a)inn
*do not use the pronoun mi. The inflected form includes the 1st person information)

Archaic first person plural (This form is rarely used anymore, instead the regular form just below plus the pronoun sinn is used)
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(e)amaid
*do not use the pronoun sinn. The inflected form includes the 1st person information.

All forms except First person
*Lenite the root
*suffix -eadh or -adh
*2nd person singular is ''tu'' rather than ''thu''

==Imperative Mood (commands)==
The Imperative (command) form of the verb is usually identical to the dictionary or root form of the verb.
*Fàg 'leave!'
*Leugh 'read!'
*Coisich 'walk!'
When plural or polite, add -(a)ibh to the root form:
*Fàgaibh 'you all leave'
*Leughaibh 'you all read'
*Coisichibh 'you all walk'

==The formation of verbal noun==

When the verbal noun is used, another auxiliary-type verb is used to encode tense, aspect and/or negation. However, the verbal noun carries the lexical information of the verb. In most cases the form of the verbal noun is the plain root or a suffixed root, where any of the following suffixes attach to the root: ''-ail, -aich, -amh, -inn,'' and ''-adh''.

{|:
|Bha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|dhan
|bhuth(aidh)
|-
|be.PAST
|I
|PROG
|go.vn
|to.the
|shop.DAT
|-
|Aux
|Subject
|Aspect
|Verbal Noun
|Adposition
|Noun
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I was going to the shop.'
|}

==The formation of the verbal adjective==
*duinte
*òlte

==See Also==
==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar#Verb_forms_and_tense

==References==
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) Scottish Gaelic Level 2. Each-Mara Productions.
*Mark, Colin (200X) Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified. Savage Publishers.
*Lamb, William (2001) Scottish Gaelic. Lincom Europa.
*https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=GAIDHLIG-B&D=0&P=81674
[[Category:Morphology]]

Verb Inflection

2015-10-04T21:02:31Z

Cpatton: /* In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses */

==Past Tense==

Scottish Gaelic verbs can encode tense, aspect, modality, voice, person, and number.

===Declarative===

With regular verbs in [[Declarative (definition)|declarative]] context, the past tense is formed by [[Lenition|leniting]] the first consonant of the [[Imperative (definition)|imperative]] verb form. With [[Vowel (definition)|vowel]] initial forms, one prefixes an orthographic <dh'> (pronounced as [ɣ] before [[Broad (definition)|broad]] vowels and [j] before [[Slender (definition)|slender]] ones). Forms beginning with /f/, are both lenited and preceded by <dh'>

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Imperative
!English Translation
!Past Tense
!English Translation
|-
|fàg!
|leave!
|dh'fhàg
|left
|-
|ionnsaich!
|learn!
|dh'ionnsaich
|learnt
|-
|pòg!
|kiss!
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|obair!
|work!
|dh'obair
|worked
|-
|sabaid!
|fight!
|shabaid
|fought
|-
|sgrìobh!
|write!
|sgrìobh
|wrote
|-
|ruith!
|run!
|ruith
|run
|-
|seas!
|sit!
|sheas
|sat
|-
|teasgaisg!
|teach!
|theagaisg
|taught
|-
|tog!
|lift!
|thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses===

In negatives, questions, and declarative embedded clauses, the verb takes its [[Dependent (definition)|dependent]] form. In the past tense, the dependent form is usually identical to the normal past, but will be preceded by the particle ''do''. ''Do'' is required in formal speech and in prescriptive writing, but is often left out in rapid speech. Some dialects (e.g. Lewis) tend to leave the particle off more frequently.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Past Tense
!Question
!Negation
!Negative Question
!Embedded clause
!English
|-
|phòg
|an do phòg
|cha do phòg
|nach do phòg
|gun do phòg
|kissed
|-
|dh'obair
|an do dh'obair
|cha do dh'obair
|nach do dh'obair
|gun do dh'obair
|worked
|-
|shabaid
|an do shabaid
|cha do shabaid
|nach do shabaid
|gun do shabaid
|fought
|-
|sheas
|an do sheas
|cha do sheas
|nach do sheas
|gun do sheas
|sat
|-
|thog
|an do thog
|cha do thog
|nach do thog
|gun do thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===Impersonal (Passive) forms===
In the impersonal passive, the root is lenited and the suffix -eadh/-adh is attached to the end of the word. The impersonal passive demotes the agent/do-er, and it no longer appears in the structure. Instead, the patient/undergo-er is highlighted, as in the examples (a) and (d) based off of Lamb 2001 (pg. 64).<br\>

{|:
(a)
|chreachadh
|am
|baile
|-
|destroy.IMPERS
|the
|town.NOM
|-
|"colspan=5"| "The town was destroyed"
|}

{|:
(b)
|Dh'oladh
|am
|bainne
|-
|drink.past.imp
|the
|milk
|-
|Verb
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "The milk was drunk."
|}

{|:
(c)
|Mharbhadh
|Iain
|leis
|a'
|ghunna
|-
|kill.past.imp
|John
|with
|the
|gun.dat
|-
|Verb
|Noun
|Adposition
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "John was killed with a gun."
|}

The Impersonal form contrasts with the active sentence in (d) where the third person plural agent ''iad'' appears.
{|:
(d)
|cheach
|iad
|a'
|bhaile
|-
|destroy.PAST
|they
|the
|town
|-
|"colspan=5"| "They destroyed the town"
|}

==Present Tense==
Most verbs in Gaelic don't have a present tense. The primary exceptions are the [[Copula]] and the verb [[Bi (auxiliary)]]

To mark what translates as the present tense in English, there are two strategies. One is to use the progressive:

{|:
|Tha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|ann
|-
|COP.PRES
|I
|PROG
|go
|there
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I'm going there.'
|}

When the intention is a habitual, the future tense is used.

{|:
|Ithidh
|mi
|a'
|bhiadh
|a
|h-uile
|latha
|-
|eat.FUT
|I
|aL
|food
|every
|day
|-
|colspan="5"| "I eat food every day" (literally I will eat food every day)
|}

==Future Tense==
*Future: Fuirichidh, chan fhuirich, am fuirich, cò fuiricheas
*Future:
**Yes form: suffix -idh (ithidh òlaidh)
**No form: DON'T suffix -idh: Chan ith
*Cha is chan before vowels, and lenites but not d and t. Chan fhag
*Question form: DON'T suffix -idh, no lenition after "an" and "Nach"
*Future tense
**Yes form ROOT +(A)IDH
**No form CHA ROOT
**Q/Neg AN/AM/NACH ROOT
**Rel fut Co etc + ROOT+(e)AS

===Impersonal (passive) forms===
*suffix -(e)ar
** dùinear e 'someone shut'

==Relative Future==
''see also [[Relative Future]]''
*the root is aspirated
*-(e)as is suffixed.
*The second person pronoun is always tu rather than thu

==Conditional Mood==
First person singular
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(a)inn
*do not use the pronoun mi. The inflected form includes the 1st person information)

Archaic first person plural (This form is rarely used anymore, instead the regular form just below plus the pronoun sinn is used)
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(e)amaid
*do not use the pronoun sinn. The inflected form includes the 1st person information.

All forms except First person
*Lenite the root
*suffix -eadh or -adh
*2nd person singular is ''tu'' rather than ''thu''

==Imperative Mood (commands)==
The Imperative (command) form of the verb is usually identical to the dictionary or root form of the verb.
*Fàg 'leave!'
*Leugh 'read!'
*Coisich 'walk!'
When plural or polite, add -(a)ibh to the root form:
*Fàgaibh 'you all leave'
*Leughaibh 'you all read'
*Coisichibh 'you all walk'

==The formation of verbal noun==

When the verbal noun is used, another auxiliary-type verb is used to encode tense, aspect and/or negation. However, the verbal noun carries the lexical information of the verb. In most cases the form of the verbal noun is the plain root or a suffixed root, where any of the following suffixes attach to the root: ''-ail, -aich, -amh, -inn,'' and ''-adh''.

{|:
|Bha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|dhan
|bhuth(aidh)
|-
|be.PAST
|I
|PROG
|go.vn
|to.the
|shop.DAT
|-
|Aux
|Subject
|Aspect
|Verbal Noun
|Adposition
|Noun
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I was going to the shop.'
|}

==The formation of the verbal adjective==
*duinte
*òlte

==See Also==
==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar#Verb_forms_and_tense

==References==
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) Scottish Gaelic Level 2. Each-Mara Productions.
*Mark, Colin (200X) Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified. Savage Publishers.
*Lamb, William (2001) Scottish Gaelic. Lincom Europa.
*https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=GAIDHLIG-B&D=0&P=81674
[[Category:Morphology]]

Verb Inflection

2015-10-04T21:01:21Z

Cpatton: /* Declarative */

==Past Tense==

Scottish Gaelic verbs can encode tense, aspect, modality, voice, person, and number.

===Declarative===

With regular verbs in [[Declarative (definition)|declarative]] context, the past tense is formed by [[Lenition|leniting]] the first consonant of the [[Imperative (definition)|imperative]] verb form. With [[Vowel (definition)|vowel]] initial forms, one prefixes an orthographic <dh'> (pronounced as [ɣ] before [[Broad (definition)|broad]] vowels and [j] before [[Slender (definition)|slender]] ones). Forms beginning with /f/, are both lenited and preceded by <dh'>

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Imperative
!English Translation
!Past Tense
!English Translation
|-
|fàg!
|leave!
|dh'fhàg
|left
|-
|ionnsaich!
|learn!
|dh'ionnsaich
|learnt
|-
|pòg!
|kiss!
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|obair!
|work!
|dh'obair
|worked
|-
|sabaid!
|fight!
|shabaid
|fought
|-
|sgrìobh!
|write!
|sgrìobh
|wrote
|-
|ruith!
|run!
|ruith
|run
|-
|seas!
|sit!
|sheas
|sat
|-
|teasgaisg!
|teach!
|theagaisg
|taught
|-
|tog!
|lift!
|thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses===

In negatives, questions and declarative embedded clauses, the verb takes its [[Dependent (definition)|dependent]] form. In the past tense the dependent form is usually identical to the normal past, but preceded by the particle ''do''. ''Do'' is required in formal speech and in prescriptive writing but is often left out in rapid speech. Some dialects (e.g. Lewis) tend to leave the particle off more frequently.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Past Tense
!Question
!Negation
!Negative Question
!Embedded clause
!English
|-
|phòg
|an do phòg
|cha do phòg
|nach do phòg
|gun do phòg
|kissed
|-
|dh'obair
|an do dh'obair
|cha do dh'obair
|nach do dh'obair
|gun do dh'obair
|worked
|-
|shabaid
|an do shabaid
|cha do shabaid
|nach do shabaid
|gun do shabaid
|fought
|-
|sheas
|an do sheas
|cha do sheas
|nach do sheas
|gun do sheas
|sat
|-
|thog
|an do thog
|cha do thog
|nach do thog
|gun do thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===Impersonal (Passive) forms===
In the impersonal passive, the root is lenited and the suffix -eadh/-adh is attached to the end of the word. The impersonal passive demotes the agent/do-er, and it no longer appears in the structure. Instead, the patient/undergo-er is highlighted, as in the examples (a) and (d) based off of Lamb 2001 (pg. 64).<br\>

{|:
(a)
|chreachadh
|am
|baile
|-
|destroy.IMPERS
|the
|town.NOM
|-
|"colspan=5"| "The town was destroyed"
|}

{|:
(b)
|Dh'oladh
|am
|bainne
|-
|drink.past.imp
|the
|milk
|-
|Verb
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "The milk was drunk."
|}

{|:
(c)
|Mharbhadh
|Iain
|leis
|a'
|ghunna
|-
|kill.past.imp
|John
|with
|the
|gun.dat
|-
|Verb
|Noun
|Adposition
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "John was killed with a gun."
|}

The Impersonal form contrasts with the active sentence in (d) where the third person plural agent ''iad'' appears.
{|:
(d)
|cheach
|iad
|a'
|bhaile
|-
|destroy.PAST
|they
|the
|town
|-
|"colspan=5"| "They destroyed the town"
|}

==Present Tense==
Most verbs in Gaelic don't have a present tense. The primary exceptions are the [[Copula]] and the verb [[Bi (auxiliary)]]

To mark what translates as the present tense in English, there are two strategies. One is to use the progressive:

{|:
|Tha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|ann
|-
|COP.PRES
|I
|PROG
|go
|there
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I'm going there.'
|}

When the intention is a habitual, the future tense is used.

{|:
|Ithidh
|mi
|a'
|bhiadh
|a
|h-uile
|latha
|-
|eat.FUT
|I
|aL
|food
|every
|day
|-
|colspan="5"| "I eat food every day" (literally I will eat food every day)
|}

==Future Tense==
*Future: Fuirichidh, chan fhuirich, am fuirich, cò fuiricheas
*Future:
**Yes form: suffix -idh (ithidh òlaidh)
**No form: DON'T suffix -idh: Chan ith
*Cha is chan before vowels, and lenites but not d and t. Chan fhag
*Question form: DON'T suffix -idh, no lenition after "an" and "Nach"
*Future tense
**Yes form ROOT +(A)IDH
**No form CHA ROOT
**Q/Neg AN/AM/NACH ROOT
**Rel fut Co etc + ROOT+(e)AS

===Impersonal (passive) forms===
*suffix -(e)ar
** dùinear e 'someone shut'

==Relative Future==
''see also [[Relative Future]]''
*the root is aspirated
*-(e)as is suffixed.
*The second person pronoun is always tu rather than thu

==Conditional Mood==
First person singular
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(a)inn
*do not use the pronoun mi. The inflected form includes the 1st person information)

Archaic first person plural (This form is rarely used anymore, instead the regular form just below plus the pronoun sinn is used)
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(e)amaid
*do not use the pronoun sinn. The inflected form includes the 1st person information.

All forms except First person
*Lenite the root
*suffix -eadh or -adh
*2nd person singular is ''tu'' rather than ''thu''

==Imperative Mood (commands)==
The Imperative (command) form of the verb is usually identical to the dictionary or root form of the verb.
*Fàg 'leave!'
*Leugh 'read!'
*Coisich 'walk!'
When plural or polite, add -(a)ibh to the root form:
*Fàgaibh 'you all leave'
*Leughaibh 'you all read'
*Coisichibh 'you all walk'

==The formation of verbal noun==

When the verbal noun is used, another auxiliary-type verb is used to encode tense, aspect and/or negation. However, the verbal noun carries the lexical information of the verb. In most cases the form of the verbal noun is the plain root or a suffixed root, where any of the following suffixes attach to the root: ''-ail, -aich, -amh, -inn,'' and ''-adh''.

{|:
|Bha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|dhan
|bhuth(aidh)
|-
|be.PAST
|I
|PROG
|go.vn
|to.the
|shop.DAT
|-
|Aux
|Subject
|Aspect
|Verbal Noun
|Adposition
|Noun
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I was going to the shop.'
|}

==The formation of the verbal adjective==
*duinte
*òlte

==See Also==
==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar#Verb_forms_and_tense

==References==
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) Scottish Gaelic Level 2. Each-Mara Productions.
*Mark, Colin (200X) Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified. Savage Publishers.
*Lamb, William (2001) Scottish Gaelic. Lincom Europa.
*https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=GAIDHLIG-B&D=0&P=81674
[[Category:Morphology]]

Verb Inflection

2015-10-04T21:00:46Z

Cpatton: /* Declarative */

==Past Tense==

Scottish Gaelic verbs can encode tense, aspect, modality, voice, person, and number.

===Declarative===

With regular verbs in [[Declarative (definition)|declarative]] context, the past tense is formed by [[Lenition|leniting]] the first consonant of the [[Imperative (definition)|imperative]]. With [[Vowel (definition)|vowel]] initial forms, one prefixes an orthographic <dh'> (pronounced as [ɣ] before [[Broad (definition)|broad]] vowels and [j] before [[Slender (definition)|slender]] ones). Forms beginning with /f/, are both lenited and preceded by <dh'>

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Imperative
!English Translation
!Past Tense
!English Translation
|-
|fàg!
|leave!
|dh'fhàg
|left
|-
|ionnsaich!
|learn!
|dh'ionnsaich
|learnt
|-
|pòg!
|kiss!
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|obair!
|work!
|dh'obair
|worked
|-
|sabaid!
|fight!
|shabaid
|fought
|-
|sgrìobh!
|write!
|sgrìobh
|wrote
|-
|ruith!
|run!
|ruith
|run
|-
|seas!
|sit!
|sheas
|sat
|-
|teasgaisg!
|teach!
|theagaisg
|taught
|-
|tog!
|lift!
|thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses===

In negatives, questions and declarative embedded clauses, the verb takes its [[Dependent (definition)|dependent]] form. In the past tense the dependent form is usually identical to the normal past, but preceded by the particle ''do''. ''Do'' is required in formal speech and in prescriptive writing but is often left out in rapid speech. Some dialects (e.g. Lewis) tend to leave the particle off more frequently.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Past Tense
!Question
!Negation
!Negative Question
!Embedded clause
!English
|-
|phòg
|an do phòg
|cha do phòg
|nach do phòg
|gun do phòg
|kissed
|-
|dh'obair
|an do dh'obair
|cha do dh'obair
|nach do dh'obair
|gun do dh'obair
|worked
|-
|shabaid
|an do shabaid
|cha do shabaid
|nach do shabaid
|gun do shabaid
|fought
|-
|sheas
|an do sheas
|cha do sheas
|nach do sheas
|gun do sheas
|sat
|-
|thog
|an do thog
|cha do thog
|nach do thog
|gun do thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===Impersonal (Passive) forms===
In the impersonal passive, the root is lenited and the suffix -eadh/-adh is attached to the end of the word. The impersonal passive demotes the agent/do-er, and it no longer appears in the structure. Instead, the patient/undergo-er is highlighted, as in the examples (a) and (d) based off of Lamb 2001 (pg. 64).<br\>

{|:
(a)
|chreachadh
|am
|baile
|-
|destroy.IMPERS
|the
|town.NOM
|-
|"colspan=5"| "The town was destroyed"
|}

{|:
(b)
|Dh'oladh
|am
|bainne
|-
|drink.past.imp
|the
|milk
|-
|Verb
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "The milk was drunk."
|}

{|:
(c)
|Mharbhadh
|Iain
|leis
|a'
|ghunna
|-
|kill.past.imp
|John
|with
|the
|gun.dat
|-
|Verb
|Noun
|Adposition
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "John was killed with a gun."
|}

The Impersonal form contrasts with the active sentence in (d) where the third person plural agent ''iad'' appears.
{|:
(d)
|cheach
|iad
|a'
|bhaile
|-
|destroy.PAST
|they
|the
|town
|-
|"colspan=5"| "They destroyed the town"
|}

==Present Tense==
Most verbs in Gaelic don't have a present tense. The primary exceptions are the [[Copula]] and the verb [[Bi (auxiliary)]]

To mark what translates as the present tense in English, there are two strategies. One is to use the progressive:

{|:
|Tha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|ann
|-
|COP.PRES
|I
|PROG
|go
|there
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I'm going there.'
|}

When the intention is a habitual, the future tense is used.

{|:
|Ithidh
|mi
|a'
|bhiadh
|a
|h-uile
|latha
|-
|eat.FUT
|I
|aL
|food
|every
|day
|-
|colspan="5"| "I eat food every day" (literally I will eat food every day)
|}

==Future Tense==
*Future: Fuirichidh, chan fhuirich, am fuirich, cò fuiricheas
*Future:
**Yes form: suffix -idh (ithidh òlaidh)
**No form: DON'T suffix -idh: Chan ith
*Cha is chan before vowels, and lenites but not d and t. Chan fhag
*Question form: DON'T suffix -idh, no lenition after "an" and "Nach"
*Future tense
**Yes form ROOT +(A)IDH
**No form CHA ROOT
**Q/Neg AN/AM/NACH ROOT
**Rel fut Co etc + ROOT+(e)AS

===Impersonal (passive) forms===
*suffix -(e)ar
** dùinear e 'someone shut'

==Relative Future==
''see also [[Relative Future]]''
*the root is aspirated
*-(e)as is suffixed.
*The second person pronoun is always tu rather than thu

==Conditional Mood==
First person singular
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(a)inn
*do not use the pronoun mi. The inflected form includes the 1st person information)

Archaic first person plural (This form is rarely used anymore, instead the regular form just below plus the pronoun sinn is used)
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(e)amaid
*do not use the pronoun sinn. The inflected form includes the 1st person information.

All forms except First person
*Lenite the root
*suffix -eadh or -adh
*2nd person singular is ''tu'' rather than ''thu''

==Imperative Mood (commands)==
The Imperative (command) form of the verb is usually identical to the dictionary or root form of the verb.
*Fàg 'leave!'
*Leugh 'read!'
*Coisich 'walk!'
When plural or polite, add -(a)ibh to the root form:
*Fàgaibh 'you all leave'
*Leughaibh 'you all read'
*Coisichibh 'you all walk'

==The formation of verbal noun==

When the verbal noun is used, another auxiliary-type verb is used to encode tense, aspect and/or negation. However, the verbal noun carries the lexical information of the verb. In most cases the form of the verbal noun is the plain root or a suffixed root, where any of the following suffixes attach to the root: ''-ail, -aich, -amh, -inn,'' and ''-adh''.

{|:
|Bha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|dhan
|bhuth(aidh)
|-
|be.PAST
|I
|PROG
|go.vn
|to.the
|shop.DAT
|-
|Aux
|Subject
|Aspect
|Verbal Noun
|Adposition
|Noun
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I was going to the shop.'
|}

==The formation of the verbal adjective==
*duinte
*òlte

==See Also==
==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar#Verb_forms_and_tense

==References==
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) Scottish Gaelic Level 2. Each-Mara Productions.
*Mark, Colin (200X) Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified. Savage Publishers.
*Lamb, William (2001) Scottish Gaelic. Lincom Europa.
*https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=GAIDHLIG-B&D=0&P=81674
[[Category:Morphology]]

Verb Inflection

2015-10-04T20:59:21Z

Cpatton: /* Declarative */

==Past Tense==

Scottish Gaelic verbs can encode tense, aspect, modality, voice, person, and number.

===Declarative===

With regular verbs in [[Declarative (definition)|declarative]] context, the past tense is formed by [[Lenition|leniting]] the first consonant of the [[Imperative (definition)|imperative]]. With [[Vowel (definition)|vowel]] initial forms, one prefixes an orthographic <dh'> (pronounced as [ɣ] before [[Broad (definition)|broad]] vowels and [j] before [[Slender (definition)|slender]] ones). Forms beginning with /f/, are both lenited and preceded by <dh'>

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Imperative
!Past Tense
!English
|-
|fàg!
|dh'fhàg
|left
|-
|ionnsaich!
|dh'ionnsaich
|learnt
|-
|pòg!
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|obair!
|dh'obair
|worked
|-
|sabaid!
|shabaid
|fought
|-
|sgrìobh!
|sgrìobh
|wrote
|-
|ruith!
|ruith
|run
|-
|seas!
|sheas
|sat
|-
|teasgaisg!
|theagaisg
|taught
|-
|tog!
|thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses===

In negatives, questions and declarative embedded clauses, the verb takes its [[Dependent (definition)|dependent]] form. In the past tense the dependent form is usually identical to the normal past, but preceded by the particle ''do''. ''Do'' is required in formal speech and in prescriptive writing but is often left out in rapid speech. Some dialects (e.g. Lewis) tend to leave the particle off more frequently.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Past Tense
!Question
!Negation
!Negative Question
!Embedded clause
!English
|-
|phòg
|an do phòg
|cha do phòg
|nach do phòg
|gun do phòg
|kissed
|-
|dh'obair
|an do dh'obair
|cha do dh'obair
|nach do dh'obair
|gun do dh'obair
|worked
|-
|shabaid
|an do shabaid
|cha do shabaid
|nach do shabaid
|gun do shabaid
|fought
|-
|sheas
|an do sheas
|cha do sheas
|nach do sheas
|gun do sheas
|sat
|-
|thog
|an do thog
|cha do thog
|nach do thog
|gun do thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===Impersonal (Passive) forms===
In the impersonal passive, the root is lenited and the suffix -eadh/-adh is attached to the end of the word. The impersonal passive demotes the agent/do-er, and it no longer appears in the structure. Instead, the patient/undergo-er is highlighted, as in the examples (a) and (d) based off of Lamb 2001 (pg. 64).<br\>

{|:
(a)
|chreachadh
|am
|baile
|-
|destroy.IMPERS
|the
|town.NOM
|-
|"colspan=5"| "The town was destroyed"
|}

{|:
(b)
|Dh'oladh
|am
|bainne
|-
|drink.past.imp
|the
|milk
|-
|Verb
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "The milk was drunk."
|}

{|:
(c)
|Mharbhadh
|Iain
|leis
|a'
|ghunna
|-
|kill.past.imp
|John
|with
|the
|gun.dat
|-
|Verb
|Noun
|Adposition
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "John was killed with a gun."
|}

The Impersonal form contrasts with the active sentence in (d) where the third person plural agent ''iad'' appears.
{|:
(d)
|cheach
|iad
|a'
|bhaile
|-
|destroy.PAST
|they
|the
|town
|-
|"colspan=5"| "They destroyed the town"
|}

==Present Tense==
Most verbs in Gaelic don't have a present tense. The primary exceptions are the [[Copula]] and the verb [[Bi (auxiliary)]]

To mark what translates as the present tense in English, there are two strategies. One is to use the progressive:

{|:
|Tha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|ann
|-
|COP.PRES
|I
|PROG
|go
|there
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I'm going there.'
|}

When the intention is a habitual, the future tense is used.

{|:
|Ithidh
|mi
|a'
|bhiadh
|a
|h-uile
|latha
|-
|eat.FUT
|I
|aL
|food
|every
|day
|-
|colspan="5"| "I eat food every day" (literally I will eat food every day)
|}

==Future Tense==
*Future: Fuirichidh, chan fhuirich, am fuirich, cò fuiricheas
*Future:
**Yes form: suffix -idh (ithidh òlaidh)
**No form: DON'T suffix -idh: Chan ith
*Cha is chan before vowels, and lenites but not d and t. Chan fhag
*Question form: DON'T suffix -idh, no lenition after "an" and "Nach"
*Future tense
**Yes form ROOT +(A)IDH
**No form CHA ROOT
**Q/Neg AN/AM/NACH ROOT
**Rel fut Co etc + ROOT+(e)AS

===Impersonal (passive) forms===
*suffix -(e)ar
** dùinear e 'someone shut'

==Relative Future==
''see also [[Relative Future]]''
*the root is aspirated
*-(e)as is suffixed.
*The second person pronoun is always tu rather than thu

==Conditional Mood==
First person singular
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(a)inn
*do not use the pronoun mi. The inflected form includes the 1st person information)

Archaic first person plural (This form is rarely used anymore, instead the regular form just below plus the pronoun sinn is used)
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(e)amaid
*do not use the pronoun sinn. The inflected form includes the 1st person information.

All forms except First person
*Lenite the root
*suffix -eadh or -adh
*2nd person singular is ''tu'' rather than ''thu''

==Imperative Mood (commands)==
The Imperative (command) form of the verb is usually identical to the dictionary or root form of the verb.
*Fàg 'leave!'
*Leugh 'read!'
*Coisich 'walk!'
When plural or polite, add -(a)ibh to the root form:
*Fàgaibh 'you all leave'
*Leughaibh 'you all read'
*Coisichibh 'you all walk'

==The formation of verbal noun==

When the verbal noun is used, another auxiliary-type verb is used to encode tense, aspect and/or negation. However, the verbal noun carries the lexical information of the verb. In most cases the form of the verbal noun is the plain root or a suffixed root, where any of the following suffixes attach to the root: ''-ail, -aich, -amh, -inn,'' and ''-adh''.

{|:
|Bha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|dhan
|bhuth(aidh)
|-
|be.PAST
|I
|PROG
|go.vn
|to.the
|shop.DAT
|-
|Aux
|Subject
|Aspect
|Verbal Noun
|Adposition
|Noun
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I was going to the shop.'
|}

==The formation of the verbal adjective==
*duinte
*òlte

==See Also==
==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar#Verb_forms_and_tense

==References==
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) Scottish Gaelic Level 2. Each-Mara Productions.
*Mark, Colin (200X) Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified. Savage Publishers.
*Lamb, William (2001) Scottish Gaelic. Lincom Europa.
*https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=GAIDHLIG-B&D=0&P=81674
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)

2015-10-04T20:58:38Z

Cpatton:

A phonological phenomena in which the first consonant in a word changes due to its surrounding phonological, morphological, or syntactic environment. In Gaelic, [[Lenition]] is the primary initial consonant mutation, though [[Eclipsis]] also occurs. Lenition is typically indicated by adding an orthographic <h> after the first consonant. The phonological effects of lenition are: coronals become debuccalized, stops become fricatives, /f/ deletes, [[Slender (definition)|slender]] [[Sonorant (definition)| sonorants]] become [[Broad (definition)|broad]]. For example, the adjective ''mòr'' /mo:r/ "big" becomes ''mhòr'' /vo:r/ after a feminine noun.

==See Also==
*[[Lenition]]
*[[Eclipsis]]
*[[Orthography]]

==External Links==
The link below takes you away from the Gaelic Wiki to Wikipedia. Since Wikipedia pages can be edited by anyone, they often contain inaccurate information. So be careful!
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_mutation

==References==
*[[William Lamb|Lamb, William]] (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic''. 2nd edition. Munich: Lingcom Europa

[[Category:Technical Definitions]]
[[Category:Morphology]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category: Orthography]]

Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)

2015-10-04T20:58:06Z

Cpatton:

A phonological phenomena in which the first consonant in a word changes due to its surrounding phonological, morphological, or syntactic environment. In Gaelic, [[Lenition]] is the primary initial consonant mutation, though [[Eclipsis]] also occurs. Lenition is typically indicated by adding an orthographic <h> after the first consonant. The phonological effects of lenition are: coronals become debuccalized, stops become fricatives, /f/ deletes, [[Slender (definition)|slender]] [[Sonorant (definition)| sonorants]] become [[Broad (definition)|broad]]. For example, the adjective ''mòr'' /mo:r/ becomes ''mhòr'' /vo:r/ after a feminine noun.

==See Also==
*[[Lenition]]
*[[Eclipsis]]
*[[Orthography]]

==External Links==
The link below takes you away from the Gaelic Wiki to Wikipedia. Since Wikipedia pages can be edited by anyone, they often contain inaccurate information. So be careful!
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_mutation

==References==
*[[William Lamb|Lamb, William]] (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic''. 2nd edition. Munich: Lingcom Europa

[[Category:Technical Definitions]]
[[Category:Morphology]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category: Orthography]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:54:14Z

Cpatton: /* Lenition */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an <h> following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:53:39Z

Cpatton: /* Nasalization/Eclipsis */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an "h" following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|athair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-athair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:53:24Z

Cpatton: /* Nasalization/Eclipsis */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an "h" following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
//see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]//

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|ahair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-ahair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:52:49Z

Cpatton: /* Nasalization/Eclipsis */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an "h" following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
:{|
|ahair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|ar
|n-ahair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:52:23Z

Cpatton: /* Nasalization/Eclipsis */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an "h" following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]

Eclipsis is a morphophonological change triggered by certain function words (such as ''ar'' "our"). In words beginning with a vowel, this involves prefixing an orthographic <n-> in front of the word (e.g. ''ar '''n'''-athair'', "our father").

(1a)
|{:
|ahair
|-
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"father"
|}

(1b)
|{:
|ar
|n-ahair
|-
|1.PL.POSS
|father
|-
|colspan="3"|"our father"
|}

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:48:22Z

Cpatton: /* Lenition */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an "h" following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

(1a)
:{|
|'''p'''eann
|-
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"pen"
|}

(1b)
:{|
|mo
|'''ph'''eann
|-
|1.S.POSS
|pen
|-
|colspan="3"|"my pen"
|}

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Initial Consonant Mutations

2015-10-04T20:41:40Z

Cpatton: /* Lenition */

''For a definition of the basic notion see [[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]''

==Morphological and Syntactic Triggering==

==Lenition==
//see also the main article [[lenition]]//

Lenition is an initial consonant mutation which "weakens" (cf. Latin lenis 'weak') the sound of the consonant at the beginning of a word. It is used to mark certain morphological contrasts and to mark inflection.
Lenition is often marked orthographically by an "h" following the consonant which undergoes lenition.

For example, the 1st person singular possessive pronoun ''mo'' "my", causes lenition on the noun which follows it. The noun ''peann'' "pen" begins with a "p", but when it is lenited, it is written as ''pheann'' and the pronunciation changes (per the information given on the [[lenition]] page.)

peann
"pen"

mo pheann
1.S.POSS pen
"my pen"

==Nasalization/Eclipsis==
see also the main article [[Eclipsis]]

==Historical Origins==

==See Also==
*[[Initial Consonant Mutation (definition)]]
*[[Sounds of Scottish Gaelic]]

==External Links==
http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Lenition

==References==

[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Morphology]]

Articles

2015-04-24T03:00:16Z

Cpatton: /* Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) */

==Indefinite Articles in Gaelic==
In Gaelic the [[Indefinite (definition)|indefinite]] article is silent (e.g. ''leabhar'' 'a book') -- the exception being the indefinite [[Genitive Case(definition)|genitive]], where there is no overt article, but the noun is lenited (Lamb 2003: 29) (e.g.. XXX)

==Definite Articles in Gaelic==
The [[definite (definition)| definite]] article surfaces variously as [[An (article)|an]], [[Am (article)|am]], [[A' (article)|a']], [[Nam (article)|nam]], [[Nan (article)|nan]] or [[Na (article)|na]] depending upon the [[Case (definition)|case]], [[Gender (definition)|gender]], and [[Number (definition)|number]] of the noun it modifies and depending upon which [[Consonant (definition)|consonant]] the following word begins with.

Throughout the following, two symbols indicate initial mutations and are not traditionally written out:
*L means "triggers [[lenition]]" on the first consonant of the word that follows
*Articles ending in ''-n'' or ''-m'' often trigger [[Voice (definition)|voicing]] of the following consonant through [[Eclipsis]], although this is not indicated in writing.

The system is complex, so we give four different descriptions. Choose the one that suits you best.

==Description 1: By Case ==

This description is based on that found in Fisher (2004).

===Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) ===

The [[Common Case (definition)|common case]] form of the article is used with a noun in [[Subject (definition)|subject]] and [[Object (definition)|object]] positions.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Vowel (definition)|vowels]]
|an t-
|an t-òran
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labials]]
|am
|am bòrd
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an càr
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

{|:
|Tha
|Mòrag
|a'
|draibhadh
|an
|càr
|dearg
|-
|is.PRES
|Mòrag
|PROG
|drive
|the
|car
|red
|-
|colspan="5" | "Mòrag is driving the red car."
|}

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Feminine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' phòg
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhaoileag
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-seachdain
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an sgian
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the common case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Genitive Case===

The [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] is used to indicate an object that is a possessor.

The masculine singular genitive pattern is identical to the feminine common case pattern, and dative case forms.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhuachd
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an tsluaigh
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taighe
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The feminine genitive is identical to common case plural

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Feminine Singular Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na muc
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-adhairce
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plural of genitive uses some variety of Nan/Nam:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plural Genitive of both Genders
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial consonants]]
|nam
|nam bocsaichean
|-
|All other sounds
|nan
|nan taighean
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Dative Case===
The [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case is found after many [[Preposition (definition)|prepositions]]. The dative singular of both genders is identical to the feminine singular common case (and the masculine singular genitive).

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhios
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-sùil
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taigh
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plurals are identical to the common case:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

== Description 2: By gender and number==

===Masculine Singular Article===

{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2"|am
|colspan="3"|an
|an t-
|-
!Dat
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2"| an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Gen
|}

===Feminine Singular Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2" |an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|colspan="5"|na
|na h-
|}

===Plural Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f, b, m, p
!all other consonants
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|na
|rowspan="2"|na h-
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|nam
|colspan="2"|nan
|}

== Description 3: By form of the article==

{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Form
!location
|-
|rowspan="4"|a'L
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|am
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before "f, b, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="5"|an
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before anything ''except'' vowels and "b, f, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="4"|anL
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''f''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''f''
|-
|rowspan="5"|an t-
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels
|-
|rowspan="3"|na
|Nom/Acc plural before consonants
|-
|Dative plural before consonants
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before consonants
|-
|rowspan="3"|na h-
|Nom/Acc plural before vowels
|-
|Dative plural before vowels
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before vowels
|-
|nam
|Plural Genitive before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|Plural Genitive before other sounds
|}

== Description 4: An Abstract Analysis==

The following description is based on the insightful description found at [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar]]. The symbols in the next chart are abstract! You need to translate them using the guides that follow.

{| cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|singular
!colspan="1" rowspan ="2"|plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Nom/acc (common)
|W
|X
|rowspan="2"|Y
|-
!Dative
|colspan="2"|X
|-
!Genitive
|X
|Y
|Z
|}

Each of these abstract forms is realized the following ways, predictable from the [[Phonology (definition)|phonology]]:

=== Pattern W===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|an t-
|before vowel
|-
|am
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern X===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|a'L
|before ''b, c, g, m, p''
|-
|anL
|before "f"
|-
|an t-
|before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern Y===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|na
|before consonants
|-
|na h-
|before vowels
|}

===Pattern Z===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|nam
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|elsewhere
|}

==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determiner_(class)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definiteness

==References==
*Lamb, William (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic.'' Lincom-Europa.
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) ''Scottish Gaelic: Level 1.'' Seattle: Each-Mara Publications

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Parts of Speech]]
[[Category: Functional Categories]]
[[Category: Determiner]]

Articles

2015-04-24T02:59:32Z

Cpatton: /* Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) */

==Indefinite Articles in Gaelic==
In Gaelic the [[Indefinite (definition)|indefinite]] article is silent (e.g. ''leabhar'' 'a book') -- the exception being the indefinite [[Genitive Case(definition)|genitive]], where there is no overt article, but the noun is lenited (Lamb 2003: 29) (e.g.. XXX)

==Definite Articles in Gaelic==
The [[definite (definition)| definite]] article surfaces variously as [[An (article)|an]], [[Am (article)|am]], [[A' (article)|a']], [[Nam (article)|nam]], [[Nan (article)|nan]] or [[Na (article)|na]] depending upon the [[Case (definition)|case]], [[Gender (definition)|gender]], and [[Number (definition)|number]] of the noun it modifies and depending upon which [[Consonant (definition)|consonant]] the following word begins with.

Throughout the following, two symbols indicate initial mutations and are not traditionally written out:
*L means "triggers [[lenition]]" on the first consonant of the word that follows
*Articles ending in ''-n'' or ''-m'' often trigger [[Voice (definition)|voicing]] of the following consonant through [[Eclipsis]], although this is not indicated in writing.

The system is complex, so we give four different descriptions. Choose the one that suits you best.

==Description 1: By Case ==

This description is based on that found in Fisher (2004).

===Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) ===

The [[Common Case (definition)|common case]] form of the article is used with a noun in [[Subject (definition)|subject]] and [[Object (definition)|object]] positions.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Vowel (definition)|vowels]]
|an t-
|an t-òran
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labials]]
|am
|am bòrd
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an càr
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

{|:
|Tha
|Mòrag
|a'
|draibhadh
|an
|càr
|dearg
|-
|is.PRES
|Mòrag
|PROG
|drive
|the
|car
|red
|-
|"Mòrag is driving the red car."
|}

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Feminine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' phòg
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhaoileag
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-seachdain
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an sgian
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the common case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Genitive Case===

The [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] is used to indicate an object that is a possessor.

The masculine singular genitive pattern is identical to the feminine common case pattern, and dative case forms.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhuachd
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an tsluaigh
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taighe
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The feminine genitive is identical to common case plural

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Feminine Singular Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na muc
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-adhairce
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plural of genitive uses some variety of Nan/Nam:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plural Genitive of both Genders
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial consonants]]
|nam
|nam bocsaichean
|-
|All other sounds
|nan
|nan taighean
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Dative Case===
The [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case is found after many [[Preposition (definition)|prepositions]]. The dative singular of both genders is identical to the feminine singular common case (and the masculine singular genitive).

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhios
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-sùil
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taigh
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plurals are identical to the common case:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

== Description 2: By gender and number==

===Masculine Singular Article===

{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2"|am
|colspan="3"|an
|an t-
|-
!Dat
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2"| an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Gen
|}

===Feminine Singular Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2" |an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|colspan="5"|na
|na h-
|}

===Plural Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f, b, m, p
!all other consonants
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|na
|rowspan="2"|na h-
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|nam
|colspan="2"|nan
|}

== Description 3: By form of the article==

{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Form
!location
|-
|rowspan="4"|a'L
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|am
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before "f, b, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="5"|an
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before anything ''except'' vowels and "b, f, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="4"|anL
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''f''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''f''
|-
|rowspan="5"|an t-
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels
|-
|rowspan="3"|na
|Nom/Acc plural before consonants
|-
|Dative plural before consonants
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before consonants
|-
|rowspan="3"|na h-
|Nom/Acc plural before vowels
|-
|Dative plural before vowels
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before vowels
|-
|nam
|Plural Genitive before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|Plural Genitive before other sounds
|}

== Description 4: An Abstract Analysis==

The following description is based on the insightful description found at [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar]]. The symbols in the next chart are abstract! You need to translate them using the guides that follow.

{| cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|singular
!colspan="1" rowspan ="2"|plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Nom/acc (common)
|W
|X
|rowspan="2"|Y
|-
!Dative
|colspan="2"|X
|-
!Genitive
|X
|Y
|Z
|}

Each of these abstract forms is realized the following ways, predictable from the [[Phonology (definition)|phonology]]:

=== Pattern W===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|an t-
|before vowel
|-
|am
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern X===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|a'L
|before ''b, c, g, m, p''
|-
|anL
|before "f"
|-
|an t-
|before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern Y===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|na
|before consonants
|-
|na h-
|before vowels
|}

===Pattern Z===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|nam
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|elsewhere
|}

==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determiner_(class)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definiteness

==References==
*Lamb, William (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic.'' Lincom-Europa.
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) ''Scottish Gaelic: Level 1.'' Seattle: Each-Mara Publications

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Parts of Speech]]
[[Category: Functional Categories]]
[[Category: Determiner]]

Articles

2015-04-24T02:58:41Z

Cpatton: /* Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) */

==Indefinite Articles in Gaelic==
In Gaelic the [[Indefinite (definition)|indefinite]] article is silent (e.g. ''leabhar'' 'a book') -- the exception being the indefinite [[Genitive Case(definition)|genitive]], where there is no overt article, but the noun is lenited (Lamb 2003: 29) (e.g.. XXX)

==Definite Articles in Gaelic==
The [[definite (definition)| definite]] article surfaces variously as [[An (article)|an]], [[Am (article)|am]], [[A' (article)|a']], [[Nam (article)|nam]], [[Nan (article)|nan]] or [[Na (article)|na]] depending upon the [[Case (definition)|case]], [[Gender (definition)|gender]], and [[Number (definition)|number]] of the noun it modifies and depending upon which [[Consonant (definition)|consonant]] the following word begins with.

Throughout the following, two symbols indicate initial mutations and are not traditionally written out:
*L means "triggers [[lenition]]" on the first consonant of the word that follows
*Articles ending in ''-n'' or ''-m'' often trigger [[Voice (definition)|voicing]] of the following consonant through [[Eclipsis]], although this is not indicated in writing.

The system is complex, so we give four different descriptions. Choose the one that suits you best.

==Description 1: By Case ==

This description is based on that found in Fisher (2004).

===Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) ===

The [[Common Case (definition)|common case]] form of the article is used with a noun in [[Subject (definition)|subject]] and [[Object (definition)|object]] positions.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Vowel (definition)|vowels]]
|an t-
|an t-òran
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labials]]
|am
|am bòrd
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an càr
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

{|:
|Tha
|Mòrag
|a'
|draibhadh
|an
|càr
|dearg
|-
|
|Mòrag
|PROG
|drive
|the
|car
|red
|-
|"Mòrag is driving the red car."
|}

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Feminine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' phòg
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhaoileag
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-seachdain
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an sgian
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the common case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Genitive Case===

The [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] is used to indicate an object that is a possessor.

The masculine singular genitive pattern is identical to the feminine common case pattern, and dative case forms.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhuachd
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an tsluaigh
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taighe
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The feminine genitive is identical to common case plural

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Feminine Singular Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na muc
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-adhairce
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plural of genitive uses some variety of Nan/Nam:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plural Genitive of both Genders
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial consonants]]
|nam
|nam bocsaichean
|-
|All other sounds
|nan
|nan taighean
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Dative Case===
The [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case is found after many [[Preposition (definition)|prepositions]]. The dative singular of both genders is identical to the feminine singular common case (and the masculine singular genitive).

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhios
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-sùil
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taigh
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plurals are identical to the common case:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

== Description 2: By gender and number==

===Masculine Singular Article===

{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2"|am
|colspan="3"|an
|an t-
|-
!Dat
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2"| an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Gen
|}

===Feminine Singular Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2" |an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|colspan="5"|na
|na h-
|}

===Plural Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f, b, m, p
!all other consonants
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|na
|rowspan="2"|na h-
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|nam
|colspan="2"|nan
|}

== Description 3: By form of the article==

{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Form
!location
|-
|rowspan="4"|a'L
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|am
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before "f, b, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="5"|an
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before anything ''except'' vowels and "b, f, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="4"|anL
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''f''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''f''
|-
|rowspan="5"|an t-
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels
|-
|rowspan="3"|na
|Nom/Acc plural before consonants
|-
|Dative plural before consonants
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before consonants
|-
|rowspan="3"|na h-
|Nom/Acc plural before vowels
|-
|Dative plural before vowels
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before vowels
|-
|nam
|Plural Genitive before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|Plural Genitive before other sounds
|}

== Description 4: An Abstract Analysis==

The following description is based on the insightful description found at [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar]]. The symbols in the next chart are abstract! You need to translate them using the guides that follow.

{| cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|singular
!colspan="1" rowspan ="2"|plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Nom/acc (common)
|W
|X
|rowspan="2"|Y
|-
!Dative
|colspan="2"|X
|-
!Genitive
|X
|Y
|Z
|}

Each of these abstract forms is realized the following ways, predictable from the [[Phonology (definition)|phonology]]:

=== Pattern W===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|an t-
|before vowel
|-
|am
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern X===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|a'L
|before ''b, c, g, m, p''
|-
|anL
|before "f"
|-
|an t-
|before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern Y===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|na
|before consonants
|-
|na h-
|before vowels
|}

===Pattern Z===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|nam
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|elsewhere
|}

==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determiner_(class)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definiteness

==References==
*Lamb, William (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic.'' Lincom-Europa.
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) ''Scottish Gaelic: Level 1.'' Seattle: Each-Mara Publications

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Parts of Speech]]
[[Category: Functional Categories]]
[[Category: Determiner]]

Articles

2015-04-24T02:51:35Z

Cpatton: /* Definite Articles in Gaelic */

==Indefinite Articles in Gaelic==
In Gaelic the [[Indefinite (definition)|indefinite]] article is silent (e.g. ''leabhar'' 'a book') -- the exception being the indefinite [[Genitive Case(definition)|genitive]], where there is no overt article, but the noun is lenited (Lamb 2003: 29) (e.g.. XXX)

==Definite Articles in Gaelic==
The [[definite (definition)| definite]] article surfaces variously as [[An (article)|an]], [[Am (article)|am]], [[A' (article)|a']], [[Nam (article)|nam]], [[Nan (article)|nan]] or [[Na (article)|na]] depending upon the [[Case (definition)|case]], [[Gender (definition)|gender]], and [[Number (definition)|number]] of the noun it modifies and depending upon which [[Consonant (definition)|consonant]] the following word begins with.

Throughout the following, two symbols indicate initial mutations and are not traditionally written out:
*L means "triggers [[lenition]]" on the first consonant of the word that follows
*Articles ending in ''-n'' or ''-m'' often trigger [[Voice (definition)|voicing]] of the following consonant through [[Eclipsis]], although this is not indicated in writing.

The system is complex, so we give four different descriptions. Choose the one that suits you best.

==Description 1: By Case ==

This description is based on that found in Fisher (2004).

===Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) ===

The [[Common Case (definition)|common case]] form of the article is used with a noun in [[Subject (definition)|subject]] and [[Object (definition)|object]] positions.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Vowel (definition)|vowels]]
|an t-
|an t-òran
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labials]]
|am
|am bòrd
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an càr
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Feminine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' phòg
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhaoileag
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-seachdain
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an sgian
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the common case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Genitive Case===

The [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] is used to indicate an object that is a possessor.

The masculine singular genitive pattern is identical to the feminine common case pattern, and dative case forms.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhuachd
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an tsluaigh
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taighe
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The feminine genitive is identical to common case plural

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Feminine Singular Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na muc
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-adhairce
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plural of genitive uses some variety of Nan/Nam:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plural Genitive of both Genders
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial consonants]]
|nam
|nam bocsaichean
|-
|All other sounds
|nan
|nan taighean
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Dative Case===
The [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case is found after many [[Preposition (definition)|prepositions]]. The dative singular of both genders is identical to the feminine singular common case (and the masculine singular genitive).

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhios
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-sùil
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taigh
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plurals are identical to the common case:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

== Description 2: By gender and number==

===Masculine Singular Article===

{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2"|am
|colspan="3"|an
|an t-
|-
!Dat
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2"| an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Gen
|}

===Feminine Singular Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2" |an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|colspan="5"|na
|na h-
|}

===Plural Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f, b, m, p
!all other consonants
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|na
|rowspan="2"|na h-
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|nam
|colspan="2"|nan
|}

== Description 3: By form of the article==

{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Form
!location
|-
|rowspan="4"|a'L
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|am
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before "f, b, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="5"|an
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before anything ''except'' vowels and "b, f, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="4"|anL
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''f''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''f''
|-
|rowspan="5"|an t-
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels
|-
|rowspan="3"|na
|Nom/Acc plural before consonants
|-
|Dative plural before consonants
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before consonants
|-
|rowspan="3"|na h-
|Nom/Acc plural before vowels
|-
|Dative plural before vowels
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before vowels
|-
|nam
|Plural Genitive before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|Plural Genitive before other sounds
|}

== Description 4: An Abstract Analysis==

The following description is based on the insightful description found at [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar]]. The symbols in the next chart are abstract! You need to translate them using the guides that follow.

{| cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|singular
!colspan="1" rowspan ="2"|plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Nom/acc (common)
|W
|X
|rowspan="2"|Y
|-
!Dative
|colspan="2"|X
|-
!Genitive
|X
|Y
|Z
|}

Each of these abstract forms is realized the following ways, predictable from the [[Phonology (definition)|phonology]]:

=== Pattern W===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|an t-
|before vowel
|-
|am
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern X===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|a'L
|before ''b, c, g, m, p''
|-
|anL
|before "f"
|-
|an t-
|before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern Y===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|na
|before consonants
|-
|na h-
|before vowels
|}

===Pattern Z===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|nam
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|elsewhere
|}

==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determiner_(class)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definiteness

==References==
*Lamb, William (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic.'' Lincom-Europa.
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) ''Scottish Gaelic: Level 1.'' Seattle: Each-Mara Publications

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Parts of Speech]]
[[Category: Functional Categories]]
[[Category: Determiner]]

Articles

2015-04-24T02:49:44Z

Cpatton: /* Definite Articles in Gaelic */

==Indefinite Articles in Gaelic==
In Gaelic the [[Indefinite (definition)|indefinite]] article is silent (e.g. ''leabhar'' 'a book') -- the exception being the indefinite [[Genitive Case(definition)|genitive]], where there is no overt article, but the noun is lenited (Lamb 2003: 29) (e.g.. XXX)

==Definite Articles in Gaelic==
The [[definite (definition)| definite]] article surfaces variously as [[An (article)|an]], [[Am (article)|am]], [[A' (article)|a']], [[Nam (article)|nam]], [[Nan (article)|nan]] or [[Na (article)|na]] depending upon the [[Case (definition)|case]], [[Gender (definition)|gender]], and [[Number (definition)|number]] of the noun it modifies and depending upon which [[Consonant (definition)|consonant]] the following word begins with.

Throughout the following symbols indicate initial mutations and are not traditionally written out
L means "triggers [[lenition]]",
Articles ending in ''-n'' or ''-m'' often trigger [[Voice (definition)|voicing]] of the following consonant through [[Eclipsis]], although this is not indicated in writing.

The system is complex, so we give four different descriptions. Choose the one that suits you best.

==Description 1: By Case ==

This description is based on that found in Fisher (2004).

===Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) ===

The [[Common Case (definition)|common case]] form of the article is used with a noun in [[Subject (definition)|subject]] and [[Object (definition)|object]] positions.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Vowel (definition)|vowels]]
|an t-
|an t-òran
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labials]]
|am
|am bòrd
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an càr
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Feminine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' phòg
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhaoileag
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-seachdain
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an sgian
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the common case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Genitive Case===

The [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] is used to indicate an object that is a possessor.

The masculine singular genitive pattern is identical to the feminine common case pattern, and dative case forms.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhuachd
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an tsluaigh
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taighe
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The feminine genitive is identical to common case plural

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Feminine Singular Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na muc
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-adhairce
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plural of genitive uses some variety of Nan/Nam:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plural Genitive of both Genders
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial consonants]]
|nam
|nam bocsaichean
|-
|All other sounds
|nan
|nan taighean
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Dative Case===
The [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case is found after many [[Preposition (definition)|prepositions]]. The dative singular of both genders is identical to the feminine singular common case (and the masculine singular genitive).

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhios
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-sùil
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taigh
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plurals are identical to the common case:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

== Description 2: By gender and number==

===Masculine Singular Article===

{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2"|am
|colspan="3"|an
|an t-
|-
!Dat
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2"| an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Gen
|}

===Feminine Singular Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2" |an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|colspan="5"|na
|na h-
|}

===Plural Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f, b, m, p
!all other consonants
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|na
|rowspan="2"|na h-
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|nam
|colspan="2"|nan
|}

== Description 3: By form of the article==

{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Form
!location
|-
|rowspan="4"|a'L
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|am
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before "f, b, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="5"|an
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before anything ''except'' vowels and "b, f, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="4"|anL
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''f''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''f''
|-
|rowspan="5"|an t-
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels
|-
|rowspan="3"|na
|Nom/Acc plural before consonants
|-
|Dative plural before consonants
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before consonants
|-
|rowspan="3"|na h-
|Nom/Acc plural before vowels
|-
|Dative plural before vowels
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before vowels
|-
|nam
|Plural Genitive before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|Plural Genitive before other sounds
|}

== Description 4: An Abstract Analysis==

The following description is based on the insightful description found at [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar]]. The symbols in the next chart are abstract! You need to translate them using the guides that follow.

{| cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|singular
!colspan="1" rowspan ="2"|plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Nom/acc (common)
|W
|X
|rowspan="2"|Y
|-
!Dative
|colspan="2"|X
|-
!Genitive
|X
|Y
|Z
|}

Each of these abstract forms is realized the following ways, predictable from the [[Phonology (definition)|phonology]]:

=== Pattern W===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|an t-
|before vowel
|-
|am
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern X===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|a'L
|before ''b, c, g, m, p''
|-
|anL
|before "f"
|-
|an t-
|before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern Y===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|na
|before consonants
|-
|na h-
|before vowels
|}

===Pattern Z===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|nam
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|elsewhere
|}

==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determiner_(class)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definiteness

==References==
*Lamb, William (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic.'' Lincom-Europa.
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) ''Scottish Gaelic: Level 1.'' Seattle: Each-Mara Publications

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Parts of Speech]]
[[Category: Functional Categories]]
[[Category: Determiner]]

Articles

2015-04-24T02:48:03Z

Cpatton: /* References */

==Indefinite Articles in Gaelic==
In Gaelic the [[Indefinite (definition)|indefinite]] article is silent (e.g. ''leabhar'' 'a book') -- the exception being the indefinite [[Genitive Case(definition)|genitive]], where there is no overt article, but the noun is lenited (Lamb 2003: 29) (e.g.. XXX)

==Definite Articles in Gaelic==
The definite article surfaces variously as [[An (article)|an]], [[Am (article)|am]], [[A' (article)|a']], [[Nam (article)|nam]], [[Nan (article)|nan]] or [[Na (article)|na]] depending upon the [[Case (definition)|case]], [[Gender (definition)|gender]], and [[Number (definition)|number]] of the noun it modifies and depending upon which [[Consonant (definition)|consonant]] the following word begins with.

Throughout the following symbols indicate initial mutations and are not traditionally written out
L means "triggers [[lenition]]",
Articles ending in ''-n'' or ''-m'' often trigger [[Voice (definition)|voicing]] of the following consonant through [[Eclipsis]], although this is not indicated in writing.

The system is complex, so we give four different descriptions. Choose the one that suits you best.

==Description 1: By Case ==

This description is based on that found in Fisher (2004).

===Common Case (Nominative/Accusative) ===

The [[Common Case (definition)|common case]] form of the article is used with a noun in [[Subject (definition)|subject]] and [[Object (definition)|object]] positions.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Vowel (definition)|vowels]]
|an t-
|an t-òran
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labials]]
|am
|am bòrd
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an càr
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Feminine Common Case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' phòg
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhaoileag
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-seachdain
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an sgian
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the common case
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Genitive Case===

The [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] is used to indicate an object that is a possessor.

The masculine singular genitive pattern is identical to the feminine common case pattern, and dative case forms.

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular Masculine Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhuachd
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an tsluaigh
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taighe
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The feminine genitive is identical to common case plural

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Feminine Singular Genitive
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na muc
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-adhairce
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plural of genitive uses some variety of Nan/Nam:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plural Genitive of both Genders
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial consonants]]
|nam
|nam bocsaichean
|-
|All other sounds
|nan
|nan taighean
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

===Dative Case===
The [[Dative Case (definition)|dative]] case is found after many [[Preposition (definition)|prepositions]]. The dative singular of both genders is identical to the feminine singular common case (and the masculine singular genitive).

:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Singular of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Labial (definition)|labial]] and [[Velar (definition)|velar]] [[Stop (definition)|stops]] (b, p, g, c) and m
|a'L
|a' bhòrd
|-
|f
|anL
|an fhios
|-
|s followed by vowels, l, n, r
|an t- (i.e. anT)
|an t-sùil
|-
|all other sounds
|an
|an taigh
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

The plurals are identical to the common case:
:{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|+Plurals of both genders in the dative
!Before
!form
!Example
|-
|[[Consonant (definition)|consonants]]
|na
|na gillean
|-
|Vowels
|na h- (i.e. anH)
|na h-ubhlan
|}
:(table based on Fisher (2004)

== Description 2: By gender and number==

===Masculine Singular Article===

{| border=1 cellpadding="5", rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2"|am
|colspan="3"|an
|an t-
|-
!Dat
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2"| an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Gen
|}

===Feminine Singular Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f
!b, m, p
!c, g
!sV, sl, sn, sr
!d, t, l, n, r, sg, sm, sp, st
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|rowspan="2"|anL
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|a'L
|rowspan="2" |an t-
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|an
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|colspan="5"|na
|na h-
|}

===Plural Article===
{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!
!colspan="6" |before
|-
!
!f, b, m, p
!all other consonants
!before vowels
|-
!Nom/Acc (common case)
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"|na
|rowspan="2"|na h-
|-
!Dat
|-
!Gen
|nam
|colspan="2"|nan
|}

== Description 3: By form of the article==

{| border=1 cellpadding=2, rules="all" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Form
!location
|-
|rowspan="4"|a'L
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before "b, c, g, m, p"
|-
|am
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before "f, b, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="5"|an
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before vowels and ''d, n, t, l, r, sg, sp, st, sm''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before anything ''except'' vowels and "b, f, m, p"
|-
|rowspan="4"|anL
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''f''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''f''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''f''
|-
|rowspan="5"|an t-
|Feminine Nom/Acc Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Feminine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Dative Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Genitive Singular before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|Masculine Nom/Acc Singular before vowels
|-
|rowspan="3"|na
|Nom/Acc plural before consonants
|-
|Dative plural before consonants
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before consonants
|-
|rowspan="3"|na h-
|Nom/Acc plural before vowels
|-
|Dative plural before vowels
|-
|Feminine Genitive singular before vowels
|-
|nam
|Plural Genitive before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|Plural Genitive before other sounds
|}

== Description 4: An Abstract Analysis==

The following description is based on the insightful description found at [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar]]. The symbols in the next chart are abstract! You need to translate them using the guides that follow.

{| cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|singular
!colspan="1" rowspan ="2"|plural
|-
!Masculine
!Feminine
|-
!Nom/acc (common)
|W
|X
|rowspan="2"|Y
|-
!Dative
|colspan="2"|X
|-
!Genitive
|X
|Y
|Z
|}

Each of these abstract forms is realized the following ways, predictable from the [[Phonology (definition)|phonology]]:

=== Pattern W===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|an t-
|before vowel
|-
|am
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern X===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|a'L
|before ''b, c, g, m, p''
|-
|anL
|before "f"
|-
|an t-
|before ''sV, sl, sn, sr''
|-
|an
|elsewhere
|}

===Pattern Y===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|na
|before consonants
|-
|na h-
|before vowels
|}

===Pattern Z===
{|cellpadding="2" rules="all" style="text-align:center"
!Form
!Context
|-
|nam
|before ''b, f, m, p''
|-
|nan
|elsewhere
|}

==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determiner_(class)
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definiteness

==References==
*Lamb, William (2003) ''Scottish Gaelic.'' Lincom-Europa.
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) ''Scottish Gaelic: Level 1.'' Seattle: Each-Mara Publications

[[Category: Lexical Item]]
[[Category: Morphology]]
[[Category: Parts of Speech]]
[[Category: Functional Categories]]
[[Category: Determiner]]

Sounds of Scottish Gaelic

2015-04-24T02:33:31Z

Cpatton: /* Inventory */

The sound system of Scottish Gaelic is remarkable for its large number of vowels and dipthongs with contrasts in both length and nasalization, as well as for its 'dual sequence' of stops and sonorants.

One caveat which must precede the following material as well as any study of the sound system of Scottish Gaelic is that there is a range of dialectal variation in the language which can significantly affect the sounds of the words and even the phonemic inventory. The material presented here is drawn from various references as well as our own work with the language.

==Vowels==
===Inventory===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border="1" cellpadding="3"
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |Front
! rowspan=2 |Central
! colspan=2 |Back
|-
!Unrounded
!Rounded
|-
!align="left"|High
|align="center"|i, i:, ĩ, ĩ:
|
|align="center"|ɯ, ɯ:, ɯ̃, ɯ̃:
|align="center"|u, u:, ũ, ũ:
|-
!align="left"|Mid High
|align="center"|e, e:
|
|align="center"|ɤ, ɤ:
|align="center"|o, o:
|-
!align="left"|Mid Low
|align="center"|ɛ, ɛ:, ɛ̃, ɛ̃:
|
|
|align="center"|ɔ, ɔ:, ɔ̃, ɔ̃:
|-
!align="left"|High
|
|align="center"|a, a:, ã, ã:
|
|
|-
|}

The nine-way distinction demonstrated above is generally accepted. However, some scholars (Ladefoged et al. 1998, Gillies 1993) note that the high back unrounded vowel may be merging with [u] and/or [ɤ] in some dialects.

===Diphthongs===

There are two main types of diphthongs. The first set, [iə], [ia], and /uə/, are a result of the breaking of Archaic Irish long vowels (Gillies 1993). The other set of diphthongs close with /i/ or /u/ ([ai], [au], [ei], [ɛu], [əi], [ɔu], and [ɯi]). These have arisen from a sequence of vowel+long consonant or VCC. Diphthongs vary significantly by dialect.

===Nasality===

The [[Nasal (definition)|oral/nasal distinction]] appears only in stressed vowels. The nasal vowels are historically a result of assimilation. However, the distinction is now based on different synchronic rules, often a result of analogy (Gillies 1993).

===Length===

Long vowels are about twice as long as short vowels in the same environment (Ò Murchù 1988). The length distinction is usually neutralized in unstressed syllables.

===Unstressed Vowels===

The phonemic inventory above represents the options for vowels in a stressed position. Unstressed vowels neutralize the oral/nasal distinction and the length distinction (Ò Murchù 1988). The options for vowel quality are also limited in unstressed vowels. Underlying short vowels appear as [ə], while underlying long vowels and diphthongs appear as [a]. In open syllables, [i] and [u] can also occur in unstressed position (Gillies 1993). Ladefoged et al. 1998 propose that a larger set of vowels [u, ɔ, ə, a, i, ɛ] can occur in unstressed position.

==Consonants==
===Inventory===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border="1" cellpadding="3"
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |[[Labial (definition)|Labial]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Dental (definition)|Dental]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Alveolar (definition)|Alveolar]]
! colspan=2 |[[Palatal (definition)|Palatal]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Velarized (definition)|Velarized]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Velar (definition)|Velar]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Glottal (definition)|Glottal]]
|-
!Coronal
!Dorsal
|-
!align="left"|[[Stop (definition)|Stop]]
|align="center"|pʰ, p
|align="center"|t̪ʰ, t̪
|
|align="center"|tʲʰ, tʲ
|align="center"|kʲʰ, kʲ
|align="center"|kʰ, k
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Nasal (definition)|Nasal]]
|align="center"|m
|
|align="center"|n
|align="center"|ɲ
|
|align="center"|nˠ
|
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Fricative (definition)|Fricative]]
|align="center"|f, v
|
|align="center"|s
|align="center"|ʃ
|align="center"|ç, ʝ
|align="center"|x, ɣ
|
|align=center|h
|-
!align="left"|[[Lateral (definition)|Lateral]]
|
|
|align="center"|l
|align="center"|lʲ
|
|align="center"|l̪ˠ
|
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Rhotic (definition)|Rhotic]]
|
|
|align="center"|ɾ
|align="center"|ɾʲ
|
|align="center"|rˠ
|
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Approximant (definition)|Approximant]]
|
|
|
|colspan=2 align="center"|j
|
|
|-
|}

===Allophones===
The velar nasal [ŋ] occurs as an allophone due to assimilation of a nasal vowel with a following velar segment.
[[Aspiration (definition)|Aspirated]] stops are realized as [[Preaspiration (definition)|preaspirated]] (with a small amount of post-aspiration as well) word-medially (Ladefoged et al. 1998).

===Stops===

====Broad and Slender consonants====

Scottish Gaelic has two 'series' of stops, traditionally called 'broad' (leathan) and 'slender' (caol) and recognized as separate classes by native speakers. The two series behave differently in different morphological environments (see [[Initial Consonant Mutations]], [[Lenition]], and thus this classification describes a morphological, rather than a phonetic distinction. The two series are often characterized by linguists as 'plain' or 'velarized' (broad) and 'palatalized' (slender). However, the actual realizations of the broad and slender consonants do not always fit into this phonetic pattern.

====Voicing and Aspiration====

The contrast between stops with the same place of articulation is usually a difference in aspiration as opposed to voicing. However, some scholars claim that there is a voicing distinction as well. Ternes (1973) proposes a four-way distinction ([p-pʰ-b-bʰ]) in his study of the Applecross dialect. MacAulay (1992) mentions that some dialects have a three-way distinction ([p-pʰ-b]), but notes that it is less common than a binary distinction in aspiration.

Ladefoged et al. (1998) examined the contrasts in the stop sequence by measuring the onset of voicing for word-initial stops and the offset and onset of voicing, as well as closure duration, for intervocalic stops. They found conclusive evidence that the distinction in that dialect (Bernara) is in aspiration, not voicing. They also note that preaspiration is considerably longer in duration than regular ('post-') aspiration.

===Nasalized Fricatives===

Nasalized fricatives are sometimes included in the phonemic inventory (Ternes 1973, Gillies 1993, among others). As nasalized fricatives are sometimes thought to be physiologically impossible (see Shosted 2006 for discussion). The status of these segments in Scottish Gaelic is therefore an empirical question currently being examined by the Arizona Scottish Gaelic Phonology and Phonetics Group.

===Sonorants===

Old Irish, the ancestor of Scottish Gaelic, had a four-way distinction for the sonorants 'n,' 'l,' and 'r.' This distinction resulted from a 'fortis' and 'lenis' version of each consonant (now called 'tense' and 'lax'), as well as a [[Broad and Slender|broad/slender]] distinction for each of these. Most dialects of Scottish Gaelic now only have a three-way distinction [http://www.akerbeltz.org/fuaimean/fuaimean.htm].

Traditional Celtic literature has a standard notation for this distinction: 'Tense' consonants are indicated by capital letters, and 'slender' consonants are indicated by a following apostrophe:

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan=1 |
! rowspan=1 |Tense
! rowspan=1 |Lax
|-
!align="left"|Broad
|align="center"|L
|align="center"|l
|-
!align="left"|Slender
|align="center"|L'
|align="center"|l'
|-
|}

===Consonant Length===

There is a phonemic contrast in length for sonorants in some dialects. In those dialects that do not have the length distinction, the syllable nucleus is often lengthened instead (MacAulay 2002):

- "gal" 'weeping' [kaL]

- "gall" 'foreigner' [kaL:] or [kauL] in dialects that don't have consonant length.

==See Also==

==External Links==
*http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Fuaimean_na_Gàidhlig

==References==

- Gillies, W. 1993. Scottish Gaelic. in M. Ball and J. Fife (eds.), The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge.

- Ladefoged, P., J. Ladefoged, A. Turk, K. Hind, and S. Skilton. 1998. Phonetic structures of Scottish Gaelic. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 28: 1-41.

- MacAulay, D. 1992. The Celtic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

- Ó Murchú, M. 1988. The phonology of a Perthsire idiolect. Scottish Gaelic Studies 15: 20-73.

- Ternes, E. 1973. The phonemic analysis of Scottish Gaelic. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
[[Category: Phonology]]
[[Category: Phonetics]]

Sounds of Scottish Gaelic

2015-04-24T02:33:04Z

Cpatton: /* Inventory */

The sound system of Scottish Gaelic is remarkable for its large number of vowels and dipthongs with contrasts in both length and nasalization, as well as for its 'dual sequence' of stops and sonorants.

One caveat which must precede the following material as well as any study of the sound system of Scottish Gaelic is that there is a range of dialectal variation in the language which can significantly affect the sounds of the words and even the phonemic inventory. The material presented here is drawn from various references as well as our own work with the language.

==Vowels==
===Inventory===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border="1" cellpadding="3"
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |Front
! rowspan=2 |Central
! colspan=2 |Back
|-
!Unrounded
!Rounded
|-
!align="left"|High
|align="center"|i, i:, ĩ, ĩ:
|
|align="center"|ɯ, ɯ:, ɯ̃, ɯ̃:
|align="center"|u, u:, ũ, ũ:
|-
!align="left"|Mid High
|align="center"|e, e:
|
|align="center"|ɤ, ɤ:
|align="center"|o, o:
|-
!align="left"|Mid Low
|align="center"|ɛ, ɛ:, ɛ̃, ɛ̃:
|
|align="center"|ɔ, ɔ:, ɔ̃, ɔ̃:
|
|-
!align="left"|High
|
|align="center"|a, a:, ã, ã:
|
|
|-
|}

The nine-way distinction demonstrated above is generally accepted. However, some scholars (Ladefoged et al. 1998, Gillies 1993) note that the high back unrounded vowel may be merging with [u] and/or [ɤ] in some dialects.

===Diphthongs===

There are two main types of diphthongs. The first set, [iə], [ia], and /uə/, are a result of the breaking of Archaic Irish long vowels (Gillies 1993). The other set of diphthongs close with /i/ or /u/ ([ai], [au], [ei], [ɛu], [əi], [ɔu], and [ɯi]). These have arisen from a sequence of vowel+long consonant or VCC. Diphthongs vary significantly by dialect.

===Nasality===

The [[Nasal (definition)|oral/nasal distinction]] appears only in stressed vowels. The nasal vowels are historically a result of assimilation. However, the distinction is now based on different synchronic rules, often a result of analogy (Gillies 1993).

===Length===

Long vowels are about twice as long as short vowels in the same environment (Ò Murchù 1988). The length distinction is usually neutralized in unstressed syllables.

===Unstressed Vowels===

The phonemic inventory above represents the options for vowels in a stressed position. Unstressed vowels neutralize the oral/nasal distinction and the length distinction (Ò Murchù 1988). The options for vowel quality are also limited in unstressed vowels. Underlying short vowels appear as [ə], while underlying long vowels and diphthongs appear as [a]. In open syllables, [i] and [u] can also occur in unstressed position (Gillies 1993). Ladefoged et al. 1998 propose that a larger set of vowels [u, ɔ, ə, a, i, ɛ] can occur in unstressed position.

==Consonants==
===Inventory===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border="1" cellpadding="3"
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |[[Labial (definition)|Labial]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Dental (definition)|Dental]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Alveolar (definition)|Alveolar]]
! colspan=2 |[[Palatal (definition)|Palatal]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Velarized (definition)|Velarized]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Velar (definition)|Velar]]
! rowspan=2 |[[Glottal (definition)|Glottal]]
|-
!Coronal
!Dorsal
|-
!align="left"|[[Stop (definition)|Stop]]
|align="center"|pʰ, p
|align="center"|t̪ʰ, t̪
|
|align="center"|tʲʰ, tʲ
|align="center"|kʲʰ, kʲ
|align="center"|kʰ, k
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Nasal (definition)|Nasal]]
|align="center"|m
|
|align="center"|n
|align="center"|ɲ
|
|align="center"|nˠ
|
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Fricative (definition)|Fricative]]
|align="center"|f, v
|
|align="center"|s
|align="center"|ʃ
|align="center"|ç, ʝ
|align="center"|x, ɣ
|
|align=center|h
|-
!align="left"|[[Lateral (definition)|Lateral]]
|
|
|align="center"|l
|align="center"|lʲ
|
|align="center"|l̪ˠ
|
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Rhotic (definition)|Rhotic]]
|
|
|align="center"|ɾ
|align="center"|ɾʲ
|
|align="center"|rˠ
|
|
|-
!align="left"|[[Approximant (definition)|Approximant]]
|
|
|
|colspan=2 align="center"|j
|
|
|-
|}

===Allophones===
The velar nasal [ŋ] occurs as an allophone due to assimilation of a nasal vowel with a following velar segment.
[[Aspiration (definition)|Aspirated]] stops are realized as [[Preaspiration (definition)|preaspirated]] (with a small amount of post-aspiration as well) word-medially (Ladefoged et al. 1998).

===Stops===

====Broad and Slender consonants====

Scottish Gaelic has two 'series' of stops, traditionally called 'broad' (leathan) and 'slender' (caol) and recognized as separate classes by native speakers. The two series behave differently in different morphological environments (see [[Initial Consonant Mutations]], [[Lenition]], and thus this classification describes a morphological, rather than a phonetic distinction. The two series are often characterized by linguists as 'plain' or 'velarized' (broad) and 'palatalized' (slender). However, the actual realizations of the broad and slender consonants do not always fit into this phonetic pattern.

====Voicing and Aspiration====

The contrast between stops with the same place of articulation is usually a difference in aspiration as opposed to voicing. However, some scholars claim that there is a voicing distinction as well. Ternes (1973) proposes a four-way distinction ([p-pʰ-b-bʰ]) in his study of the Applecross dialect. MacAulay (1992) mentions that some dialects have a three-way distinction ([p-pʰ-b]), but notes that it is less common than a binary distinction in aspiration.

Ladefoged et al. (1998) examined the contrasts in the stop sequence by measuring the onset of voicing for word-initial stops and the offset and onset of voicing, as well as closure duration, for intervocalic stops. They found conclusive evidence that the distinction in that dialect (Bernara) is in aspiration, not voicing. They also note that preaspiration is considerably longer in duration than regular ('post-') aspiration.

===Nasalized Fricatives===

Nasalized fricatives are sometimes included in the phonemic inventory (Ternes 1973, Gillies 1993, among others). As nasalized fricatives are sometimes thought to be physiologically impossible (see Shosted 2006 for discussion). The status of these segments in Scottish Gaelic is therefore an empirical question currently being examined by the Arizona Scottish Gaelic Phonology and Phonetics Group.

===Sonorants===

Old Irish, the ancestor of Scottish Gaelic, had a four-way distinction for the sonorants 'n,' 'l,' and 'r.' This distinction resulted from a 'fortis' and 'lenis' version of each consonant (now called 'tense' and 'lax'), as well as a [[Broad and Slender|broad/slender]] distinction for each of these. Most dialects of Scottish Gaelic now only have a three-way distinction [http://www.akerbeltz.org/fuaimean/fuaimean.htm].

Traditional Celtic literature has a standard notation for this distinction: 'Tense' consonants are indicated by capital letters, and 'slender' consonants are indicated by a following apostrophe:

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan=1 |
! rowspan=1 |Tense
! rowspan=1 |Lax
|-
!align="left"|Broad
|align="center"|L
|align="center"|l
|-
!align="left"|Slender
|align="center"|L'
|align="center"|l'
|-
|}

===Consonant Length===

There is a phonemic contrast in length for sonorants in some dialects. In those dialects that do not have the length distinction, the syllable nucleus is often lengthened instead (MacAulay 2002):

- "gal" 'weeping' [kaL]

- "gall" 'foreigner' [kaL:] or [kauL] in dialects that don't have consonant length.

==See Also==

==External Links==
*http://akerbeltz.org/index.php?title=Fuaimean_na_Gàidhlig

==References==

- Gillies, W. 1993. Scottish Gaelic. in M. Ball and J. Fife (eds.), The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge.

- Ladefoged, P., J. Ladefoged, A. Turk, K. Hind, and S. Skilton. 1998. Phonetic structures of Scottish Gaelic. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 28: 1-41.

- MacAulay, D. 1992. The Celtic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

- Ó Murchú, M. 1988. The phonology of a Perthsire idiolect. Scottish Gaelic Studies 15: 20-73.

- Ternes, E. 1973. The phonemic analysis of Scottish Gaelic. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
[[Category: Phonology]]
[[Category: Phonetics]]

Verb Inflection

2015-04-23T20:53:06Z

Cpatton: /* Impersonal (Passive) forms */

==Past Tense==

Scottish Gaelic verbs can encode tense, aspect, modality, voice, person, and number.

===Declarative===

With regular verbs in [[Declarative (definition)|declarative]] context, the past tense is formed by [[Lenition|leniting]] the first consonant of the [[Imperative (definition)|imperative]]. With [[Vowel (definition)|vowel]] initial forms, one prefixes an orthographic <dh'> (pronounced as [ɣ] before [[Broad (definition)|broad]] vowels and [j] before [[Slender (definition)|slender]] ones). Forms beginning with f, are both lenited and preceded by <dh'>

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Imperative
!Past Tense
!English
|-
|fàg!
|dh'fhàg
|left
|-
|ionnsaich!
|dh'ionnsaich
|learnt
|-
|pòg!
|phòg
|kissed
|-
|obair!
|dh'obair
|worked
|-
|sabaid!
|shabaid
|fought
|-
|sgrìobh!
|sgrìobh
|wrote
|-
|ruith!
|ruith
|run
|-
|seas!
|sheas
|sat
|-
|teasgaisg!
|theagaisg
|taught
|-
|tog!
|thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===In Negatives, Questions and Embedded Clauses===

In negatives, questions and declarative embedded clauses, the verb takes its [[Dependent (definition)|dependent]] form. In the past tense the dependent form is usually identical to the normal past, but preceded by the particle ''do''. ''Do'' is required in formal speech and in prescriptive writing but is often left out in rapid speech. Some dialects (e.g. Lewis) tend to leave the particle off more frequently.

{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
!Past Tense
!Question
!Negation
!Negative Question
!Embedded clause
!English
|-
|phòg
|an do phòg
|cha do phòg
|nach do phòg
|gun do phòg
|kissed
|-
|dh'obair
|an do dh'obair
|cha do dh'obair
|nach do dh'obair
|gun do dh'obair
|worked
|-
|shabaid
|an do shabaid
|cha do shabaid
|nach do shabaid
|gun do shabaid
|fought
|-
|sheas
|an do sheas
|cha do sheas
|nach do sheas
|gun do sheas
|sat
|-
|thog
|an do thog
|cha do thog
|nach do thog
|gun do thog
|lifted
|}
: chart based on a similar one in Fisher (2004)

===Impersonal (Passive) forms===
In the impersonal passive, the root is lenited and the suffix -eadh/-adh is attached to the end of the word. The impersonal passive demotes the agent/do-er, and it no longer appears in the structure. Instead, the patient/undergo-er is highlighted, as in the examples (a) and (d) based off of Lamb 2001 (pg. 64).<br\>

{|:
(a)
|chreachadh
|am
|baile
|-
|destroy.IMPERS
|the
|town.NOM
|-
|"colspan=5"| "The town was destroyed"
|}

{|:
(b)
|Dh'oladh
|am
|bainne
|-
|drink.past.imp
|the
|milk
|-
|Verb
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "The milk was drunk."
|}

{|:
(c)
|Mharbhadh
|Iain
|leis
|a'
|ghunna
|-
|kill.past.imp
|John
|with
|the
|gun.dat
|-
|Verb
|Noun
|Adposition
|Article
|Noun
|-
|"colspan-5"| "John was killed with a gun."
|}

The Impersonal form contrasts with the active sentence in (d) where the third person plural agent ''iad'' appears.
{|:
(d)
|cheach
|iad
|a'
|bhaile
|-
|destroy.PAST
|they
|the
|town
|-
|"colspan=5"| "They destroyed the town"
|}

==Present Tense==
Most verbs in Gaelic don't have a present tense. The primary exceptions are the [[Copula]] and the verb [[Bi (auxiliary)]]

To mark what translates as the present tense in English, there are two strategies. One is to use the progressive:

{|:
|Tha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|ann
|-
|COP.PRES
|I
|PROG
|go
|there
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I'm going there.'
|}

When the intention is a habitual, the future tense is used.

{|:
|Ithidh
|mi
|a'
|bhiadh
|a
|h-uile
|latha
|-
|eat.FUT
|I
|aL
|food
|every
|day
|-
|colspan="5"| "I eat food every day" (literally I will eat food every day)
|}

==Future Tense==
*Future: Fuirichidh, chan fhuirich, am fuirich, cò fuiricheas
*Future:
**Yes form: suffix -idh (ithidh òlaidh)
**No form: DON'T suffix -idh: Chan ith
*Cha is chan before vowels, and lenites but not d and t. Chan fhag
*Question form: DON'T suffix -idh, no lenition after "an" and "Nach"
*Future tense
**Yes form ROOT +(A)IDH
**No form CHA ROOT
**Q/Neg AN/AM/NACH ROOT
**Rel fut Co etc + ROOT+(e)AS

===Impersonal (passive) forms===
*suffix -(e)ar
** dùinear e 'someone shut'

==Relative Future==
''see also [[Relative Future]]''
*the root is aspirated
*-(e)as is suffixed.
*The second person pronoun is always tu rather than thu

==Conditional Mood==
First person singular
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(a)inn
*do not use the pronoun mi. The inflected form includes the 1st person information)

Archaic first person plural (This form is rarely used anymore, instead the regular form just below plus the pronoun sinn is used)
*Lenite the root
*suffix -(e)amaid
*do not use the pronoun sinn. The inflected form includes the 1st person information.

All forms except First person
*Lenite the root
*suffix -eadh or -adh
*2nd person singular is ''tu'' rather than ''thu''

==Imperative Mood (commands)==
The Imperative (command) form of the verb is usually identical to the dictionary or root form of the verb.
*Fàg 'leave!'
*Leugh 'read!'
*Coisich 'walk!'
When plural or polite, add -(a)ibh to the root form:
*Fàgaibh 'you all leave'
*Leughaibh 'you all read'
*Coisichibh 'you all walk'

==The formation of verbal noun==

When the verbal noun is used, another auxiliary-type verb is used to encode tense, aspect and/or negation. However, the verbal noun carries the lexical information of the verb. In most cases the form of the verbal noun is the plain root or a suffixed root, where any of the following suffixes attach to the root: ''-ail, -aich, -amh, -inn,'' and ''-adh''.

{|:
|Bha
|mi
|a'
|dol
|dhan
|bhuth(aidh)
|-
|be.PAST
|I
|PROG
|go.vn
|to.the
|shop.DAT
|-
|Aux
|Subject
|Aspect
|Verbal Noun
|Adposition
|Noun
|-
|colspan="5"| 'I was going to the shop.'
|}

==The formation of the verbal adjective==
*duinte
*òlte

==See Also==
==External Links==
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar#Verb_forms_and_tense

==References==
*Fisher, Muriel (2004) Scottish Gaelic Level 2. Each-Mara Productions.
*Mark, Colin (200X) Gaelic Verbs: Systemised and Simplified. Savage Publishers.
*Lamb, William (2001) Scottish Gaelic. Lincom Europa.
*https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=GAIDHLIG-B&D=0&P=81674
[[Category:Morphology]]