Difference between revisions of "Word Order"

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Line 48: Line 48:
 
When the verb is [[Ditransitive (definition)|ditransitive]], then the order is VSO followed by a [[Prepositional Phrases|prepositional phrase]] (PP) indicating the [[Indirect Object (definition)|indirect object]] (i.e. the equivalent to John put the book on the table). In Gaelic, there are no [[Double Object Constructions (definition)|double object constructions]] (like the English ''John gave Mary the book'') instead prepositional constructions must be used (''John gave the book to Mary'')
 
When the verb is [[Ditransitive (definition)|ditransitive]], then the order is VSO followed by a [[Prepositional Phrases|prepositional phrase]] (PP) indicating the [[Indirect Object (definition)|indirect object]] (i.e. the equivalent to John put the book on the table). In Gaelic, there are no [[Double Object Constructions (definition)|double object constructions]] (like the English ''John gave Mary the book'') instead prepositional constructions must be used (''John gave the book to Mary'')
  
−
(3)
+
:{|
 +
|Thug
 +
|Iain
 +
|leabhar
 +
|do
 +
|Anna
 +
|-
 +
|give.past
 +
|John
 +
|book
 +
|to
 +
|Anna
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Object
 +
|Preposition
 +
|Indirect Object
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'John gave a book to Anna.'
 +
|}
 +
 
 +
 
 +
MacAulay 1992
 +
 
  
 
:{|
 
:{|
Line 78: Line 102:
  
 
In Scottish Gaelic, a common way to create an adverb is to prefix the adverbial particle, gu-, to an adjective. These adverbs demonstrate a good deal of flexibility in term of word order in the clause.  
 
In Scottish Gaelic, a common way to create an adverb is to prefix the adverbial particle, gu-, to an adjective. These adverbs demonstrate a good deal of flexibility in term of word order in the clause.  
 +
 +
''Manner Adverbs:''
  
 
:{|
 
:{|
Line 96: Line 122:
 
|Indirect Object
 
|Indirect Object
 
|Adverb
 
|Adverb
 +
|kind
 
|-
 
|-
 
|colspan="2"| 'She said to him kindly.'
 
|colspan="2"| 'She said to him kindly.'
Line 115: Line 142:
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Adverb
 
|Adverb
 +
|kind
 
|Verb
 
|Verb
 
|Subject
 
|Subject
Line 139: Line 167:
 
|Subject
 
|Subject
 
|Adverb
 
|Adverb
 +
|kind
 
|Indirect Object
 
|Indirect Object
 
|-
 
|-
Line 145: Line 174:
  
 
Examples from Lamb (42)
 
Examples from Lamb (42)
 +
 +
 +
''Time Adverbs:''
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|Domhnall
 +
|an gobha
 +
|ag
 +
|obair
 +
|sa cheardaich
 +
|an-drasda
 +
|-
 +
|is.pres
 +
|Donald
 +
|the smith
 +
|PROG
 +
|work.vn
 +
|in.the forge.dat
 +
|right now
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Relative Clause
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|Location
 +
|Adverb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'Donald the smith is working in the forge right now.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Lamb (30)
 +
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Chunnaic
 +
|mi
 +
|an duine sin
 +
|'san eaglais
 +
|an-diugh
 +
|-
 +
|see.past
 +
|I
 +
|that man
 +
|in church
 +
|today
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Object
 +
|Location
 +
|Adverb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I saw that man in church today.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Lamb (70)
  
 
===Word order in Neutral Negative Sentences, Yes/No Questions, and Negative Yes/No Questions===
 
===Word order in Neutral Negative Sentences, Yes/No Questions, and Negative Yes/No Questions===
Line 151: Line 238:
 
Scottish Gaelic can have both single and double negatives in the main clause. Clausal negation is marked by the particles ''cha(n)'' and ''nach''.
 
Scottish Gaelic can have both single and double negatives in the main clause. Clausal negation is marked by the particles ''cha(n)'' and ''nach''.
  
 +
 +
Single Negation:
  
 
:{|
 
:{|
Line 174: Line 263:
  
  
−
Negation can also occur in a double construction:
+
Double Negation:
  
 
:{|
 
:{|
Line 206: Line 295:
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
Adding the negative particle ''na'' before an imperative yeilds the Negative Imperative
+
 
 +
Adding the negative particle ''na'' before an imperative yeilds the Negative Imperative:
  
 
:{|
 
:{|
Line 228: Line 318:
  
 
====Yes/No Questions====
 
====Yes/No Questions====
 +
 +
Yes/No Questions in Scottish Gaelic are formed with the interrogative particle ''(an)'' and the dependent form of the verb.
 +
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|An
 +
|teid
 +
|thu
 +
|leam
 +
|a
 +
|Mh
 +
|-
 +
|QP
 +
|go.INDEF1.DEP
 +
|you
 +
|with.1s
 +
|Vocative
 +
|Mhàiri
 +
|-
 +
|QP
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Indirect Object
 +
|Vocative
 +
|Mary
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'Will you go with me, Mary?.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
Example from Lamb (59)
 +
 +
====Tag Questions====
 +
 +
Tag questions consist of a main declarative clause followed by (1) a question particle and (2) a copy of the matrix verb. In Scottish Gaelic, unlike English, we can attest to four types of tag questions in relation to negation of the verbs. Since there are two verbs in each question (the matrix verb and its tagged copy) and each one of these verbs can be either positive or negative, we have the possible combinations: POS-POS; POS-NEG; NEG-NEG; NEG-POS.
 +
 +
In English, we have to have conflicting polarity in our tagged questions, such as 'You're not going there, are you?' or 'You're going there, aren't you?', but we can never have an agreement in polarity such as, '*You're not going there, aren't you?'
 +
 +
However, in Gaelic we find all four logical combinations:
 +
 +
 +
1) POS-POS
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|thu
 +
|a'
 +
|falbh
 +
|a
 +
|bheil
 +
|-
 +
|be.PRES
 +
|you
 +
|PROG
 +
|depart.VN
 +
|QP
 +
|be.PRES.DEP
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|QP
 +
|Verb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'You are leaving, are you?'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
2) POS-NEG
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|thu
 +
|a'
 +
|falbh
 +
|nach
 +
|eil
 +
|-
 +
|be.PRES
 +
|you
 +
|PROG
 +
|depart.VN
 +
|QP-NEG
 +
|be.PRES.DEP
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|QP_NEG
 +
|Verb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'You are leaving, aren't you?'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
3) NEG-NEG
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Chan
 +
|eil
 +
|thu
 +
|a'
 +
|falbh
 +
|nach
 +
|eil
 +
|-
 +
|NEG
 +
|be.PRES.DEP
 +
|you
 +
|PROG
 +
|depart.VN
 +
|QP-NEG
 +
|be.PRES.DEP
 +
|-
 +
|NEG
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|QP-NEG
 +
|Verb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'You aren't leaving, aren't you?'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
4) NEG-POS
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Chan
 +
|eil
 +
|thu
 +
|a'
 +
|falbh
 +
|a
 +
|bheil
 +
|-
 +
|NEG
 +
|be.PRES.DEP
 +
|you
 +
|PROG
 +
|depart.VN
 +
|QP
 +
|be.PRES.DEP
 +
|-
 +
|NEG
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|QP
 +
|Verb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'You aren't leaving, are you?'
 +
|}
 +
 
====Negative Yes/No Questions====
 
====Negative Yes/No Questions====
  
Line 265: Line 513:
 
When an [[Adjective (definition)|adjective]] or a [[Prepositional Phrases|prepositional phrase (PP)]] is serving as the predicate (e.g.'' John is big. John is in the room''. The order of elements uses some form of the verb [[bi (irregular verb)|''bi'']], followed by the subject followed by the nonverbal predicate:
 
When an [[Adjective (definition)|adjective]] or a [[Prepositional Phrases|prepositional phrase (PP)]] is serving as the predicate (e.g.'' John is big. John is in the room''. The order of elements uses some form of the verb [[bi (irregular verb)|''bi'']], followed by the subject followed by the nonverbal predicate:
  
−
X)
+
 
 
:{|
 
:{|
 
|Thà
 
|Thà
Line 278: Line 526:
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
Y)
+
 
 
:{|
 
:{|
 
|Bhà
 
|Bhà
Line 296: Line 544:
  
 
===Using the verb Is===
 
===Using the verb Is===
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Is
 +
|mise
 +
|Raibeart
 +
|-
 +
|Copula.pres
 +
|I
 +
|Robert
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Subject NP
 +
|Predicate NP
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I am Robert.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Is
 +
|ise
 +
|mo mhathair
 +
|-
 +
|Copula.pres
 +
|She
 +
|My Mother
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Subject NP
 +
|Predicate NP
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'She is my mother.'
 +
|}
  
 
===With no verb (small clauses)===
 
===With no verb (small clauses)===
 +
 +
Tenseless absolutive construction with a prepositional phrase predicate:
 +
:{|
 +
|Chunnaic
 +
|mi
 +
|Calum
 +
|agus
 +
|[e
 +
|air
 +
|a
 +
|mhisg].
 +
|-
 +
|see.pst
 +
|I
 +
|Calum
 +
|and
 +
|[him
 +
|on
 +
|his
 +
|drunkenness]
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I saw Calum while he was drunk.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Tenseless absolutive construction with an adjectival predicate:
 +
:{|
 +
|Chunnaic
 +
|mi
 +
|Calum
 +
|agus
 +
|[e
 +
|uamhasach
 +
|toilichte].
 +
|-
 +
|see.pst
 +
|I
 +
|Calum
 +
|and
 +
|[him
 +
|terribly
 +
|happy]
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I saw Calum while he was really happy.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Tenseless absolutive construction with a nominal predicate:
 +
:{|
 +
|Chunnaic
 +
|mi
 +
|Calum
 +
|agus
 +
|[e
 +
|'na
 +
|thidsear].
 +
|-
 +
|see.pst
 +
|I
 +
|Calum
 +
|and
 +
|[him
 +
|in.3MS
 +
|teacher]
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I saw Calum while he was a teacher.'
 +
|}
 +
Adger and Ramchand (2003:(13), (14), (15), (19))
  
 
==Word order in [[Auxiliary Constructions]]==
 
==Word order in [[Auxiliary Constructions]]==
Line 308: Line 655:
 
In [[Prescriptive (definition)|prescriptive grammars]] the object is supposed to be in the [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] [[Case (definition)|case]] although in the spoken language (and in the written forms of most speakers), the object is in the [[Common Case (definition)|common case]]
 
In [[Prescriptive (definition)|prescriptive grammars]] the object is supposed to be in the [[Genitive Case (definition)|genitive]] [[Case (definition)|case]] although in the spoken language (and in the written forms of most speakers), the object is in the [[Common Case (definition)|common case]]
  
−
A)
+
 
 
:{|
 
:{|
 
|Tha  
 
|Tha  
Line 332: Line 679:
 
|colspan="5"|John is eating the bread
 
|colspan="5"|John is eating the bread
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Bha
 +
|mi
 +
|a'
 +
|dol
 +
|dhan
 +
|bhuth(aidh)
 +
|-
 +
|Be.past
 +
|I
 +
|PROG
 +
|go.vn
 +
|to-the
 +
|shop(DAT)
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Prog Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|Prepositional Phrase
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="5"|'I was going to the shop'
 +
|}
 +
 +
===In Causative Constructions===
 +
 +
In SG, there is no morphological marker for causativizing utterances, but causatives may be formed using the verb ''thoir'' and the adposition ''air''. ''Thoir'' is translated as the English verb 'make', and ''air'' indicates the theme of the action (the argument which is made to do something).
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Thug
 +
|Mairi
 +
|air
 +
|Seumas
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|give.past
 +
|Mary
 +
|on
 +
|Seumas
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Object
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="5"|'Mary made Seumas eat'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Lamb (62)
 +
 +
 +
The exact same clausal construction may also take an entire non-finite clausal complement:
 +
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Thug
 +
|Iain
 +
|air
 +
|Anna
 +
|(i)
 +
|an
 +
|leabhar
 +
|a
 +
|thoirt
 +
|do
 +
|Mhairi
 +
|-
 +
|give.past
 +
|John
 +
|on
 +
|Anna.dat
 +
|3fs
 +
|the
 +
|book
 +
|tran
 +
|give.vn
 +
|to
 +
|Mary
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Subject/Object
 +
|Agreement
 +
|Article
 +
|Direct Object
 +
|Tran
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Mary.dat
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="5"|'John made Anna give the book to Mary'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
The exact same sentence may be used in an agentless variety:
 +
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Thainig
 +
|air
 +
|Anna
 +
|an
 +
|leabhar
 +
|a
 +
|thoirt
 +
|do
 +
|Mhairi
 +
|-
 +
|come.past
 +
|on
 +
|Anna.dat
 +
|the
 +
|book
 +
|tran
 +
|give.vn
 +
|to
 +
|Mary
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Subject/Object
 +
|Article
 +
|Direct Object
 +
|Tran
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Mary.dat
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="5"|'Anna had to give the book to Mary'
 +
|}
 +
 +
MacAulay 1992
  
 
===In Perfect, Recent Perfect, Prospective clauses===
 
===In Perfect, Recent Perfect, Prospective clauses===
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Chaidh
 +
|mi
 +
|dhan
 +
|bhuth(aidh)
 +
|-
 +
|go.past
 +
|I
 +
|to.the
 +
|shop(DAT)
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Article
 +
|object
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="5"|'I went to the shop'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Chan
 +
|eil
 +
|Ealasaid
 +
|air
 +
|Dughall
 +
|fhaicinn
 +
|-
 +
|NEG
 +
|be.pres.dep
 +
|Elizabeth
 +
|PERF
 +
|Dugald
 +
|seeing.vn
 +
|-
 +
|NEG
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Object
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="5"|'Elizabeth has not seen Dugald'
 +
|}
 +
 
===In Statives===
 
===In Statives===
 +
 +
Cross-linguistically, there is a distinction between verbs that describe [[Statives|states]] of being and other verbs which entail some dynamic motion or action.
 +
 +
''Stative Sentence:''
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|mi
 +
|nam
 +
|shuidhe
 +
|-
 +
|be.pres
 +
|I
 +
|in my
 +
|sitting
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I am sitting.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
''Dynamic Sentence:''
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|mi
 +
|a'
 +
|suidhe
 +
|-
 +
|be.pres
 +
|I
 +
|at
 +
|sitting
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I am sitting down.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
This basic analysis does not completely explain Gaelic's own distinction. It is better to say that, in terms of thematic relations, Gaelic treats Agent arguments differently from non-Agents.
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|mi
 +
|a'
 +
|sileadh
 +
|fala(dh)
 +
|-
 +
|be.pres
 +
|I
 +
|at
 +
|dripping.vn
 +
|blood.gen
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|Object
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I am bleeding.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:Lamb (51)
 +
 
===In passives===
 
===In passives===
  
 +
Gaelic has two constructions which are usually translated into the passive construction in English. They are the ''impersonal'' and the ''passive''.
 +
 +
 +
The impersonal construction uses a verbal ending ''-adh''.
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Dh'oladh
 +
|am
 +
|bainne
 +
|-
 +
|drink.past.imp
 +
|the
 +
|milk
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="4"|'The milk was drunk.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Mharbhadh
 +
|Iain
 +
|leis
 +
|a'
 +
|ghunna
 +
|-
 +
|kill.past.imp
 +
|John
 +
|with
 +
|the
 +
|gun.dat
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="4"|'John was killed with a gun.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
The 'true' passive in Gaelic is formed as follows:
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Tha
 +
|Iain
 +
|g'
 +
|a
 +
|mharbhadh
 +
|-
 +
|be
 +
|John
 +
|at
 +
|3sg.masc.pos
 +
|kill.vn.dat
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Agreement
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="4"|'John was killed.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
===Modals===
 +
 +
Modals are used in SG either with a (a) separate word (English's equivalent to ''must'') or (b) with a copula + adjective/noun. A rough equivalent to the latter would be 'John is able to eat' for 'I can eat'.
 +
 +
(a)
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Feumaidh
 +
|mi
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|must
 +
|I
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Modal
 +
|Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I must eat.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Dh'fhaodinn
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|might.I
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Modal.Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I might eat.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Dh'fhaodadh
 +
|tu
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|might
 +
|you
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Modal
 +
|Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'You might eat.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
(b)
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|'S
 +
|urrainn
 +
|dhomh
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|Copula.pres
 +
|ability
 +
|for.I
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Noun
 +
|Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I can eat.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|'S
 +
|urrainn
 +
|do
 +
|Bhob
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|Copula.pres
 +
|ability
 +
|for
 +
|Bob
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'Bob can eat.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|'S
 +
|urrainn
 +
|dhan
 +
|a'
 +
|chaora
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|Copula.pres
 +
|ability
 +
|for
 +
|the
 +
|sheep
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Article
 +
|Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'The sheep can eat.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Bu
 +
|choir
 +
|do
 +
|Bhob
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|Copula.past
 +
|right
 +
|for
 +
|Bob
 +
|eat.vn
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Adjective
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Subject
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'Bob should eat.'
 +
|}
  
 
==Word order in Embedded Clauses==
 
==Word order in Embedded Clauses==
 +
 +
Embedded clauses are usually headed by the complementizer ''gu(n/m)/gur'' in a positive declarative sentence, but if the embedded clause is negative, then ''cha(n)'' is used instead.
  
 
===Word order in finite Embedded Clauses===
 
===Word order in finite Embedded Clauses===
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Thuirt
 +
|Iain
 +
|gu
 +
|bheil
 +
|a'
 +
|Ghaidhlig
 +
|aig
 +
|Mairi
 +
|-
 +
|say.past
 +
|Iain
 +
|that
 +
|be.dep.pres
 +
|the
 +
|Gaelic
 +
|at
 +
|Mary
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Complementizer
 +
|Verb
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|Adposition
 +
|Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'Iain said that Mary speaks Gaelic.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
elicited by Carnie (2007)
  
 
===Word order in non-finite Embedded Clauses===
 
===Word order in non-finite Embedded Clauses===
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Thuirt
 +
|mi
 +
|gun
 +
|na
 +
|h-uighean
 +
|ithe
 +
|-
 +
|said
 +
|I
 +
|NEG
 +
|the
 +
|eggs
 +
|eat.INF
 +
|-
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|NEG
 +
|Article
 +
|Object
 +
|Verb
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'I said not to eat the eggs.'
 +
|}
  
 
===Word order in Relative Clauses===
 
===Word order in Relative Clauses===
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|am
 +
|fear
 +
|a
 +
|chaisig
 +
|an
 +
|cu
 +
|a
 +
|bhid
 +
|an
 +
|cat
 +
|a
 +
|mharbh
 +
|an
 +
|luch
 +
|-
 +
|the
 +
|man
 +
|wh-COMP
 +
|stop.past
 +
|the
 +
|dog
 +
|wh-COMP
 +
|bite.past
 +
|the
 +
|cat
 +
|wh-COMP
 +
|kill.past
 +
|the
 +
|mouse
 +
|-
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|Complementizer
 +
|Verb
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|Complementizer
 +
|Verb
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|Complementizer
 +
|Verb
 +
|Article
 +
|Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="6"| 'the man who stopped the dog that bit the cat that killed the mouse.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
MacAulay 1992
  
 
==Word order in Clefts==
 
==Word order in Clefts==
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|'S
 +
|e
 +
|Iain
 +
|a
 +
|bha
 +
|sgith
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|3sg.masc
 +
|Iain
 +
|wh-COMP
 +
|be.past
 +
|tired
 +
|-
 +
|Copula
 +
|Agreement
 +
|Noun
 +
|Complementizer
 +
|Verb
 +
|Adjective
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="4"|'It is Iain that was tired.'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Adger & Ramchand (2005)
  
 
==Word order in Wh-Questions==
 
==Word order in Wh-Questions==
Line 354: Line 1,299:
 
The question particle is often omitted if it follows a question ending in a vowel. The form of the question particle and the verb is dependent upon which [[Wh-words|wh-word]] is being used.
 
The question particle is often omitted if it follows a question ending in a vowel. The form of the question particle and the verb is dependent upon which [[Wh-words|wh-word]] is being used.
  
−
G)
+
:{|
−
{|
 
 
|Ciamar
 
|Ciamar
 
|a
 
|a
Line 374: Line 1,318:
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
H)
+
−
{|
+
:{|
 
|Dè
 
|Dè
 
|an
 
|an
Line 397: Line 1,341:
 
|colspan="4"|How old are you
 
|colspan="4"|How old are you
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
When a question word is in some adpositional phrase, the adposition can be fronted with the WH word (pied-piping) or it can be left in the original gap.
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Co
 +
|ris
 +
|a
 +
|bha
 +
|thu
 +
|a'
 +
|bruidhinn
 +
|-
 +
|Who
 +
|to
 +
|QP
 +
|be.PAST
 +
|you
 +
|PROG
 +
|speaking.VN
 +
|-
 +
|WH
 +
|P
 +
|QP
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'To whom were you speaking?'
 +
|}
 +
 +
 +
:{|
 +
|Co
 +
|a
 +
|bha
 +
|thu
 +
|a'
 +
|bruidhinn
 +
|ris
 +
|-
 +
|Who
 +
|QP
 +
|be.PAST
 +
|you
 +
|PROG
 +
|speaking.VN
 +
|to
 +
|-
 +
|WH
 +
|QP
 +
|Verb
 +
|Subject
 +
|Aspect
 +
|Verbal Noun
 +
|P
 +
|-
 +
|colspan="2"| 'Who were you speaking to?'
 +
|}
 +
 +
Examples from Lamb (60)
  
 
==Word Order in Noun Phrases==
 
==Word Order in Noun Phrases==
Line 421: Line 1,426:
 
*[[Auxiliary Constructions]]
 
*[[Auxiliary Constructions]]
 
*[[Relative Clauses]]
 
*[[Relative Clauses]]
 +
*[[Articles on Gaelic Syntax]]
 +
*[[Conversation with Muriel Fisher]]
 
[[Category:Syntax]]
 
[[Category:Syntax]]

Latest revision as of 11:56, 31 January 2014

to see a definition of the term syntax see Syntax (definition)


Basic Word Order

Neutral Indicative Clauses

Transitive Verbs

In information structure-neutral indicative clauses with a transitive verb, the word order is Verb+Subject+Object (VSO). Due to restrictions on the inflection of verbs, such as the use of the auxiliary construction in the present tense, VSO order is primarily true only in past tense and future tense clauses.

(1)

Phòg Muirgheal Pòl
kiss.past Muriel Paul
verb subject object
'Muriel kissed Paul'

Intransitive Verbs

When the verb is intransitive, then the order is still verb initial:

(2)

Dh'fhag Muirgheal
leave.past Muriel
verb subject
Muriel left.

Ditransitive Verbs

When the verb is ditransitive, then the order is VSO followed by a prepositional phrase (PP) indicating the indirect object (i.e. the equivalent to John put the book on the table). In Gaelic, there are no double object constructions (like the English John gave Mary the book) instead prepositional constructions must be used (John gave the book to Mary)

Thug Iain leabhar do Anna
give.past John book to Anna
Verb Subject Object Preposition Indirect Object
'John gave a book to Anna.'


MacAulay 1992


bheir Brighde an t-airgead do Chailean
give.INDEF1 Bridget the money to Colin
Verb Subject Object Preposition Indirect Object
'Bridget will give the money to Colin.'

The position and ordering of Adverbs and Adverbials

In Scottish Gaelic, a common way to create an adverb is to prefix the adverbial particle, gu-, to an adjective. These adverbs demonstrate a good deal of flexibility in term of word order in the clause.

Manner Adverbs:

Thuirt i ris gu coibhneil
said she to him ADV kind
Verb Subject Indirect Object Adverb kind
'She said to him kindly.'


Gu coibhneil thuirt i ris
ADV kind said she to him
Adverb kind Verb Subject Indirect Object
'She said to him kindly.'


Thuirt i gu coibhneil ris
said she ADV kind to him
Verb Subject Adverb kind Indirect Object
'She said to him kindly.'

Examples from Lamb (42)


Time Adverbs:

Tha Domhnall an gobha ag obair sa cheardaich an-drasda
is.pres Donald the smith PROG work.vn in.the forge.dat right now
Verb Subject Relative Clause Aspect Verbal Noun Location Adverb
'Donald the smith is working in the forge right now.'

Lamb (30)


Chunnaic mi an duine sin 'san eaglais an-diugh
see.past I that man in church today
Verb Subject Object Location Adverb
'I saw that man in church today.'

Lamb (70)

Word order in Neutral Negative Sentences, Yes/No Questions, and Negative Yes/No Questions

Word order in Neutral Negative Sentences

Scottish Gaelic can have both single and double negatives in the main clause. Clausal negation is marked by the particles cha(n) and nach.


Single Negation:

Chan eil iad gu math
NEG be.PRES.DEP they ADV well
NEG Verb Subject Adverb
'They are not well.'


Double Negation:

Cha chreid mi nach eil iad gu math
NEG believe.INDEF1 I NEG-COMP be.PRES they ADV well
NEG Verb Subject NEG Verb Subject Adverb
'I don't believe that they are not well.'


Adding the negative particle na before an imperative yeilds the Negative Imperative:

Na ithibh sin
NEG eat that
NEG Verb Object
'Don't eat that.'


Examples from Lamb (61)

Yes/No Questions

Yes/No Questions in Scottish Gaelic are formed with the interrogative particle (an) and the dependent form of the verb.


An teid thu leam a Mh
QP go.INDEF1.DEP you with.1s Vocative Mhàiri
QP Verb Subject Indirect Object Vocative Mary
'Will you go with me, Mary?.'


Example from Lamb (59)

Tag Questions

Tag questions consist of a main declarative clause followed by (1) a question particle and (2) a copy of the matrix verb. In Scottish Gaelic, unlike English, we can attest to four types of tag questions in relation to negation of the verbs. Since there are two verbs in each question (the matrix verb and its tagged copy) and each one of these verbs can be either positive or negative, we have the possible combinations: POS-POS; POS-NEG; NEG-NEG; NEG-POS.

In English, we have to have conflicting polarity in our tagged questions, such as 'You're not going there, are you?' or 'You're going there, aren't you?', but we can never have an agreement in polarity such as, '*You're not going there, aren't you?'

However, in Gaelic we find all four logical combinations:


1) POS-POS

Tha thu a' falbh a bheil
be.PRES you PROG depart.VN QP be.PRES.DEP
Verb Subject Aspect Verbal Noun QP Verb
'You are leaving, are you?'


2) POS-NEG

Tha thu a' falbh nach eil
be.PRES you PROG depart.VN QP-NEG be.PRES.DEP
Verb Subject Aspect Verbal Noun QP_NEG Verb
'You are leaving, aren't you?'


3) NEG-NEG

Chan eil thu a' falbh nach eil
NEG be.PRES.DEP you PROG depart.VN QP-NEG be.PRES.DEP
NEG Verb Subject Aspect Verbal Noun QP-NEG Verb
'You aren't leaving, aren't you?'


4) NEG-POS

Chan eil thu a' falbh a bheil
NEG be.PRES.DEP you PROG depart.VN QP be.PRES.DEP
NEG Verb Subject Aspect Verbal Noun QP Verb
'You aren't leaving, are you?'

Negative Yes/No Questions

Nach eil iad gu math
NEG be.PRES.DEP they ADV well
NEG Verb Subject Adverb
'Are they not well?.'


Example from Lamb (61)

Word order with Neutral Grade Pronouns

Word order with non-verbal predicates

Non-verbal predicates are predicates that aren't verbs (John is a fool, John is big, John is in the living room).

Using the verb Bi

When an adjective or a prepositional phrase (PP) is serving as the predicate (e.g. John is big. John is in the room. The order of elements uses some form of the verb bi, followed by the subject followed by the nonverbal predicate:


Thà Iain mòr
Be.pres John big
John is big


Bhà Iain anns an seòmar
be.past John in.def the room
John was in the room

Using the verb Is

Is mise Raibeart
Copula.pres I Robert
Copula Subject NP Predicate NP
'I am Robert.'


Is ise mo mhathair
Copula.pres She My Mother
Copula Subject NP Predicate NP
'She is my mother.'

With no verb (small clauses)

Tenseless absolutive construction with a prepositional phrase predicate:

Chunnaic mi Calum agus [e air a mhisg].
see.pst I Calum and [him on his drunkenness]
'I saw Calum while he was drunk.'

Tenseless absolutive construction with an adjectival predicate:

Chunnaic mi Calum agus [e uamhasach toilichte].
see.pst I Calum and [him terribly happy]
'I saw Calum while he was really happy.'

Tenseless absolutive construction with a nominal predicate:

Chunnaic mi Calum agus [e 'na thidsear].
see.pst I Calum and [him in.3MS teacher]
'I saw Calum while he was a teacher.'

Adger and Ramchand (2003:(13), (14), (15), (19))

Word order in Auxiliary Constructions

In Imperfect (Progressive) clauses

In Gaelic the normal present tense of all verbs except bi is absent. Instead a periphrastic construction using the auxiliary bi is used along with a verbal noun and an aspect particle (typically A. This has both imperfect and progressive meanings. The structure of these sentences is:

(Particles)+Auxiliary+Subject+Imperfect marker+Verbal+Object

In prescriptive grammars the object is supposed to be in the genitive case although in the spoken language (and in the written forms of most speakers), the object is in the common case


Tha Iain ag ithe an t-aran
Be.pres John progressive eat.vn the bread
Verb Subject Prog Aspect Verbal Noun object
John is eating the bread
Bha mi a' dol dhan bhuth(aidh)
Be.past I PROG go.vn to-the shop(DAT)
Verb Subject Prog Aspect Verbal Noun Prepositional Phrase
'I was going to the shop'

In Causative Constructions

In SG, there is no morphological marker for causativizing utterances, but causatives may be formed using the verb thoir and the adposition air. Thoir is translated as the English verb 'make', and air indicates the theme of the action (the argument which is made to do something).

Thug Mairi air Seumas ithe
give.past Mary on Seumas eat.vn
Verb Subject Adposition Object Verbal Noun
'Mary made Seumas eat'

Lamb (62)


The exact same clausal construction may also take an entire non-finite clausal complement:


Thug Iain air Anna (i) an leabhar a thoirt do Mhairi
give.past John on Anna.dat 3fs the book tran give.vn to Mary
Verb Subject Adposition Subject/Object Agreement Article Direct Object Tran Verbal Noun Adposition Mary.dat
'John made Anna give the book to Mary'


The exact same sentence may be used in an agentless variety:


Thainig air Anna an leabhar a thoirt do Mhairi
come.past on Anna.dat the book tran give.vn to Mary
Verb Adposition Subject/Object Article Direct Object Tran Verbal Noun Adposition Mary.dat
'Anna had to give the book to Mary'

MacAulay 1992

In Perfect, Recent Perfect, Prospective clauses

Chaidh mi dhan bhuth(aidh)
go.past I to.the shop(DAT)
Verb Subject Article object
'I went to the shop'
Chan eil Ealasaid air Dughall fhaicinn
NEG be.pres.dep Elizabeth PERF Dugald seeing.vn
NEG Verb Subject Aspect Object Verbal Noun
'Elizabeth has not seen Dugald'

In Statives

Cross-linguistically, there is a distinction between verbs that describe states of being and other verbs which entail some dynamic motion or action.

Stative Sentence:

Tha mi nam shuidhe
be.pres I in my sitting
Verb Subject Adposition Verbal Noun
'I am sitting.'

Dynamic Sentence:

Tha mi a' suidhe
be.pres I at sitting
Verb Subject Adposition Verbal Noun
'I am sitting down.'

This basic analysis does not completely explain Gaelic's own distinction. It is better to say that, in terms of thematic relations, Gaelic treats Agent arguments differently from non-Agents.

Tha mi a' sileadh fala(dh)
be.pres I at dripping.vn blood.gen
Verb Subject Adposition Verbal Noun Object
'I am bleeding.'
Lamb (51)

In passives

Gaelic has two constructions which are usually translated into the passive construction in English. They are the impersonal and the passive.


The impersonal construction uses a verbal ending -adh.

Dh'oladh am bainne
drink.past.imp the milk
Verb Article Noun
'The milk was drunk.'
Mharbhadh Iain leis a' ghunna
kill.past.imp John with the gun.dat
Verb Noun Adposition Article Noun
'John was killed with a gun.'


The 'true' passive in Gaelic is formed as follows:

Tha Iain g' a mharbhadh
be John at 3sg.masc.pos kill.vn.dat
Copula Noun Adposition Agreement Verbal Noun
'John was killed.'

Modals

Modals are used in SG either with a (a) separate word (English's equivalent to must) or (b) with a copula + adjective/noun. A rough equivalent to the latter would be 'John is able to eat' for 'I can eat'.

(a)

Feumaidh mi ithe
must I eat.vn
Modal Subject Verbal Noun
'I must eat.'
Dh'fhaodinn ithe
might.I eat.vn
Modal.Subject Verbal Noun
'I might eat.'
Dh'fhaodadh tu ithe
might you eat.vn
Modal Subject Verbal Noun
'You might eat.'

(b)

'S urrainn dhomh ithe
Copula.pres ability for.I eat.vn
Copula Noun Subject Verbal Noun
'I can eat.'
'S urrainn do Bhob ithe
Copula.pres ability for Bob eat.vn
Copula Noun Adposition Subject Verbal Noun
'Bob can eat.'
'S urrainn dhan a' chaora ithe
Copula.pres ability for the sheep eat.vn
Copula Noun Adposition Article Subject Verbal Noun
'The sheep can eat.'
Bu choir do Bhob ithe
Copula.past right for Bob eat.vn
Copula Adjective Adposition Subject Verbal Noun
'Bob should eat.'

Word order in Embedded Clauses

Embedded clauses are usually headed by the complementizer gu(n/m)/gur in a positive declarative sentence, but if the embedded clause is negative, then cha(n) is used instead.

Word order in finite Embedded Clauses

Thuirt Iain gu bheil a' Ghaidhlig aig Mairi
say.past Iain that be.dep.pres the Gaelic at Mary
Verb Subject Complementizer Verb Article Noun Adposition Noun
'Iain said that Mary speaks Gaelic.'

elicited by Carnie (2007)

Word order in non-finite Embedded Clauses

Thuirt mi gun na h-uighean ithe
said I NEG the eggs eat.INF
Verb Subject NEG Article Object Verb
'I said not to eat the eggs.'

Word order in Relative Clauses

am fear a chaisig an cu a bhid an cat a mharbh an luch
the man wh-COMP stop.past the dog wh-COMP bite.past the cat wh-COMP kill.past the mouse
Article Noun Complementizer Verb Article Noun Complementizer Verb Article Noun Complementizer Verb Article Noun
'the man who stopped the dog that bit the cat that killed the mouse.'

MacAulay 1992

Word order in Clefts

'S e Iain a bha sgith
Copula 3sg.masc Iain wh-COMP be.past tired
Copula Agreement Noun Complementizer Verb Adjective
'It is Iain that was tired.'

Adger & Ramchand (2005)

Word order in Wh-Questions

Wh-phrase + question particle + Verb + rest of sentence

The question particle is often omitted if it follows a question ending in a vowel. The form of the question particle and the verb is dependent upon which wh-word is being used.

Ciamar a tha thu?
how wh-direct be.pres you
wh-phrase particle Verb rest of sentence
How are you


Dè an aois a tha thu?
what the age wh-direct be.pres you
wh-phrase particle Verb rest of sentence
How old are you

When a question word is in some adpositional phrase, the adposition can be fronted with the WH word (pied-piping) or it can be left in the original gap.

Co ris a bha thu a' bruidhinn
Who to QP be.PAST you PROG speaking.VN
WH P QP Verb Subject Aspect Verbal Noun
'To whom were you speaking?'


Co a bha thu a' bruidhinn ris
Who QP be.PAST you PROG speaking.VN to
WH QP Verb Subject Aspect Verbal Noun P
'Who were you speaking to?'

Examples from Lamb (60)

Word Order in Noun Phrases

Article + Noun + Adjectives + Prepositional phrases

  • boat: bàta
  • the boat: am bàta
  • the big boat am bàta mòr
  • The big boat in the sea am bàta mòr anns a' mhuir

Possessors in the genitive follow the possessed NP:

Possessed + Article + Possessor(gen)

  • leabhar an duine

Specific Articles On The Word Order within Phrases

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